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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Response of cucumber (Cucumis melo L.) to drip irrigation under varying levels of nitrogen and potash(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1997) Lakshmi, S; KAU; Sasidhar, V KTwo field experiments and one observational trial were conducted in the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 1992 and 1993 to study the effect of drip irrigation and application of N and K fertilizers on the growth and yield of cucumber. In the preliminary observation trial (Experiment I a) three levels of drip irrigation, (2, 3 and 4 I plant-1 day-1) four timings of irrigation (1, 2, 3 and 4 hours) and two number of drippers per plant (1 and 2 dripper plant-1) were evaluated and based on the results of this experiment, the number of drippers per plant and duration of drip irrigation was standardised. Experiment 1 b was conducted to standardise the method of application of fertilizers in Experiment 2 and 3 for which cucumber plants raised under different levels of drip irrigation (2, 3 and 4 I plant-1 day-1). This was conducted during April 1992. The results of these experiments indicated the duration for drip irrigation as 3 hours per day and one number of dripper per plant to be the best. The spread and depth of root system of cucumber plants raised under drip irrigation pointed out that the fertilizers as a ring around the base of the plant at a distance of 20 cm will be within the root zone of the plant. The experiments 2 and 3 were laid out in the field with three levels of drip irrigation (2, 3, and 4 I plant-1 day-1), three levels of nitrogen (35, 70 and 105 kg ha-1) with three levels of potassium (25, 50 and 75 kg ha-1) with three drip irrigation controls (2, 3 and 4 I plant-1 day-1) and farmer's practice. The yield of cucumber was highest at the drip irrigation level of 31 planr-1 day-1. Irrigation at this level favourably influenced the vegetative characters, yield attributes and yield. But root dry matter was not influenced by the different drip irrigation level while the root spread and root depth were highest at the drip irrigation level of 41 plant-1 day-1. When different levels of nitrogen applied were observed, the vegetative characters yield attributes and yield were found to be favourably influenced at 70 kg N ha-1. The root spread of cucumber was highest at the highest level of N applied (l05 kg ha-1). Potassium at 50 kg ha-1 produced the highest yield due to its favourable influence on the vegetative and yield characters. There was no influence of potassium on my of the root characters studied. The soil moisture status was highest up to 30 cm depth in all drip irrigated treatments while in pot watered plots, the soil moisture was higher in the lower layers below 30 cm. The field water use efficiency was highest at the drip irrigation level of 3 I plant-1 day-1, 70 kg nitrogen ha-1 and 50 kg potassium ha-1. The nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium uptake by the plants and fruits were highest at the drip irrigation level of 31 plant day I, 70 kg N ha-I and 50 kg K ha-I. The physical optium levels of drip irrigation was 31 plant -1 day -1, 93 kg N ha-1 and 65 kg K ha-1 in the first season. When another crop is repeatedly grown in the same field, the Nand K levels can be reduced to 75 kg ha-1 and 60. kg ha-1 but drip irrigation is required at the rate of 31 plant-1 day-1. This resulted in higher benefit cost ratio of 2.83 and internal rate of returns of 23%. The payback period of this project worked out to 1.13 years.ThesisItem Open Access Soil test crop response studies in cassava in laterite soils of Kerala(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1997) Kumari Swadija, O; KAU; Sreedharan, CAn investigation was undertaken at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani to establish soil test crop response correlation for soil test based balanced fertilizer prescription for cassava var. M-4 in laterite soils of Kerala. The field investigation consisted of fertility gradient experiment, STCR experiment and technology verification trial. The fertility gradient experiment was conducted during April- May 1994 in the Instructional farm, Vellayani. The desired gradient in soil fertility was created in one and the same field by applying graded doses of N, P and K fertilizers and raising fodder maize var. African Tall. The STCR experiment was conducted in the same field during June '94-March '95 using the test crop, cassava var. M-4. The treatments consisted of factorial combinations of four levels of N (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg ha-1), three levels of P (0, 50 and 100 kg P2O5 ha-1) and five levels of K (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg K20 ha-1) along with three levels of farmyard manure (0, 6.25 and 12.50 t ha-1) fitted in a response surface design. Using multiple regression model, the fertilizer adjustment equation for N at varying soil test values for available N for maximum tuber yield (t ha-1) of cassava in laterite soil was derived as FN = 136.6 - 0.2 SN where FN is fertilizer N (kg ha-1) and SN is soil available N (kg ha-1). The equation becomes FN = 136.6 - 0.2 SN - R for economic tuber production where R is the ratio of cost of one kg of fertilizer N to price of one kg of tuber. At varying soil test values for organic carbon% (OC) the above equations become FN = 226.13 - 378.13 OC for maximum tuber yield and FN = 226.13 - 378.13 OC - 1.25 R for economic tuber yield. The behaviour of fertilizer P and K was found to produce responses other than 'normal' and hence optimisation could not be done for fertilizer P and K for maximum and economic tuber yield at varying soil test values. The nutrient requirements of cassava var. M-4 were estimated to be 6.58, 2.37 and 6.28 kg N, P2O5 and K2O respectively to produce one ton of tuber. In the laterite soil, the efficiencies of contribution of nutrients from the soil for cassava were calculated as 40.17, 41. 3 3 and 48.60% N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. The fertilizer efficiencies were worked out as 54.38, 47 and 52.650% N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. The efficiencies of contribution of nutrients from farmyard manure were calculated as 78.24, 57.33 and 69.66%) N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. From the above basic data, fertilizer prescription equations for specific yield targets of cassava var. M-4 in the laterite soil were derived as given below. Without FYM FN = 12.10 T - 0.74 SN FP2O5 - 5.04 T - 2.02 SP FK2O = 11.93 T - 1.10 SK With FYM FN = 12.10 T - 0.74 SN - 1.44 ON F P2O5 - 5.04 T - 2.02 SP - 2.79 OP FK2O = 11.93 T - 1.10 SK - 1.58 OK where FN, F P2O5 and FK2O are fertilizer N, P2O5 and K2O respectively in kg ha-1, T is the target of tuber yield in t ha-1, SN, SP and SK are soil available N, P and K in kg ha-1 respectively and ON, OP and OK are quantities of N, P and K supplied through organic manure in kg ha-1 The technology verification trial was undertaken during June '96-March. '97 in the laterite soil in three farmers' fields in Thiruvananthapuram district and also in the Instructional Farm, Vellayani. The treatments consisted of Package of Practices recommendation for fertilizer, fertilizer recommendation by the Soil Testing Laboratory and fertilizer doses for the yield targets of 15, 20 and 25 t ha-1 along with a uniform dose of 6.25 t ha-1 of farmyard manure for all treatments. The fertilizer doses based on targeted yield equations recorded higher tuber yield and net income, benefit cost ratio and net returns per rupee invested over the fertilizer recommendation by the Soil Testing Laboratory and Package of Practices recommendation emphasising the need for site specific recommendation based on soil tests. The yield targets of 15 and 20 t ha-1 recorded more than cent per cent achievement and the yield target of 25 t ha-1 recorded about 90% achievement. Higher tuber yield, benefit cost ratio and net returns per rupee invested could be achieved for the yield target of 20 t ha-1. The fertilizer dose for the yield target of 15 t ha-1 recorded the highest returns per rupee invested on fertilizers. The study has revealed the superiority of fertilizer application based on targeted yield approach over the semi-quantitative approach employed in the soil testing laboratories and generalised state level Package of Practices recommendation for the crop. In this approach, the fertilizer dose can be adjusted in accordance with the specific objective and available resources of the farmer.ThesisItem Open Access Ecophysiology and management of Isachne in rice fields of Onattukara(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1996) Abraham, Varughese; KAU; Tajuddin, EIsachne miliacea Roth is the most dominant weed in the 28,000 ha of low land rice fields of the coastal sandy Onattukara region, situated in Kollam and Alapuzha districts of Kerala. A serious of investigations were undertaken at Rice Research Station, Kayamkulam, during 1991 to 1994 with the objective to identify the major weeds in the rice ecosystem and to bring out the ecophysiology of 1. Miliacea and to find out a suitable weed management strategy for the rice based cropping system of Onattukara. Isachne miliacea was found to be the dominant weed in rice during Kharif and Rabi seasons. The weed seeds germinate in April – May, attains its peak vegetative growth in July and flowers in October. The seeds mature in November and the plants dry off in January with the onset of summer. The weed is propagated by seeds and stem cuttings. Germination of seeds can be prevented by submerging the seeds in the area in water even to a depth of one centimetre. The forcing of the stem cuttings of 1. Miliacea to a depth of five centimetre below the soil surface or maintaining a submergence for more than five centimetre can effectively check the vegetative multiplication of the weed. Seeds attained physiological maturity in November and remained dormant upto March. Seeds of the season that remain on the surface germinate fully in April – May with the pre – monsoon showers while the buried seeds remain dormant. Burying the seeds to more than five centimetre depth and water stagnation in July to November induced secondary dormancy. Viability of the seeds was lost faster at shallow depth of burial. Crop weed competition studies were conducted in Kharif and Rabi for two years with different densities of 1. Miliacea. Weed competition was severe in dry dibbled Kharif compared to wet transplanted Rabi. Even a small density of five 1. Miliacea plants per square metre produced appreciable biomass and reduced the DMP of rice substantially. Integrated weed management study was conducted in Kharif and Rabi for two years in a split – plot design in three randomised blocks. Kharif season treatments formed the main plots for Rabi trial. In Kharif five pre – emergence herbicides were compared with local practice. Local practice of hoeing on 15 DAS and HW twice on 25 and 40 DAS gave maximum grain yield. Application of oxyfluorfen 0.1 kg ha-1 followed by HW on 30 DAS was on par with local practice and ranked second. The performance of other herbicides anilofos 0.40 kg, butachlor 1.25 kg and thiobencarb 1.25 kg per hectare were also satisfactory when followed by one HW on 30 DAS. Pretilachlor 0.50 kg ha-1 was phytotoxic to rice. The tested herbicides effectively controlled 1. miliacea upto harvest of rice compared to local practice. During Rabi the effect of pre-plant spray of glyphosate and hand weedings were compared. Among the treatments a pre – plant spray of glyphosate after harvest of Kharif controlled 1. miliacea best and gave maximum rice yield in Rabi season. Kharif treatments did not show any significant influence on yield of rice during Rabi. From the study it could be concluded that pre – emergence spray of oxyfluorfen 0.1 kg ha-1 followed by one HW on DAS in Kharif and pre – plant application of glyphosate 0.75 kg ha-1 on residual weeds immediately after the harvest of the Kharif crop gave efficient weed control and economic yield of rice in the rice based cropping system involving rice – rice – fallow of Onattukara region.ThesisItem Open Access Standradisation of organic and inorganic fertiliser comnbinations for maximising productivity in bitter gourd (Momordica Charantia L.)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Rajasree, G; KAU; Raghavan Pillai, GAn investigation was carried out during 1995-96 and 1996-97 at the Instructional Farm attached to College of Agriculture, Vellayani to study the efficacy of different levels of N applications (200, 250 and 300 kg N ha") in different ratios of organic - chemical N substitutions (l : 1, 1:2 or 2: 1) at different frequencies (F I - full quantity of organic source as basal, F2 - organic source at basal and at 40th and 70th DAS, F3 - organic source as basal + fortnightly equal splits and chemical N source as basal + fortnightly intervals in equal splits in all the frequencies) of application. Two different organic sources ie. farm yard manure and poultry manure were used in two simultaneous experiments viz. Experiment I and 11. The experiments were separately and simultaneously laid out as confounded 33 design in 9 plot blocks with 2 replications, confounding LR2F in RI and LRF2 in R 11. Higher levels ofN nutrition was found to reduce days taken to flower in farm yard manure applied trial while sex ratio was narrowed at 90 DAS in poultry manure applied experiment. Higher jassid population was noticed at 60 DAS when higher levels ofN was supplied predominantly through organic source as farm yard manure. Fungal leaf spot infestation was higher with the application of200 kg N at 90 DAS and was also more with split applications of both farm yard manure and chemical N source at early stages of growth. Full basal application of poultry manure was found to promote the per hectare yield of fruits, fruit yield planr I and number of fruits planr I compared to its split applications. When highest level ofN (300 kg) was supplied through 2: 1 ratio of organic - chemical N substitution using poultry manure as organic source, it effectively increased the fruit yield and number of fruits plant". 2 Shelf life of fruits at room temperature was more when nutrient N was supplied through 2: 1 ratio of organic - chemical N substitution using farm yard manure or poultry manure as an organic source. When N level was increased beyond 200 kg, shelf life of fruits at room temperature slightly decreased even when it was predominantly supplied through organic source of farm yard manure or poultry manure. Similar trend was noticed at refiigeratory condition too. Nitrogen nutrition showed depressing effect on ascorbic acid or vitamin-C content of fruits in Experiment I. Iron content in fruits was more with the application of 200 or 300 kg N level in Experiment ll. When 300 kg N was applied through a major source of poultry manure (2: 1 ratio) it produced higher iron content in fruits. Higher nitrogen levels or nitrogen nutrition through 2: 1 ratio of substitution promoted the soil bacterial population in both Experiment I and II. Full basal application of farm yard manure or poultry manure favourably influenced the soil bacterial population. Nitrogen nutrition showed depressing effect on fungal population of soil in Experiment I while it stimulated the fungal growth in Experiment 11. Soil actinomycetes population was higher with 2: 1 substitution ratio using farm yard manure as organic source ofN. When farm yard manure or poultry manure as organic source was used in equal or higher proportion with chemical N source, it showed moderating effect on the soil acidity. Full basal application of farm yard manure also enhanced the soil pH from the acidic range and the organic carbon content. Application of higher levels ofN increased the net loss ofN, P and K of soil in both the Experiment I and H. Net loss ofN was higher with 1:2 ratio ofN substitution or few or more split applications of organic source (farm yard manure) in Experiment 1. Net loss of nutrients was moderated during the second year of field experimentation. Nitrogen 3 nutrition in 1:2 ratio of substitution enhanced the net loss ofN in Experiment H. Nitrogen nutrition through 2: 1 ratio ofN substitution or basal + 2 split doses of farm yard manure increased the net loss of P in soil. The net loss of K in soil was more when farm yard manure and chemical N sources were applied in 2: 1 or 1: 1 ratio of substitution. Net gain of K was observed in Experiment H, when chemical N source was substituted in higher proportion compared to poultry manure or when full dose of poultry manure was applied as basal dressing. Higher levels ofN application have resulted in negative net energy returns or energy loss in both the experiments. The 1: 1 or 1 :2 ratio ofN substitution caused higher net energy losses in Experiment I while split applications of poultry manure resulted in more energy loss in Experiment H. Total energy output was higher with full basal application of poultry manure in Experiment I. Energy ratios registered a negative value and was higher with low level ofN application in Experiment I and II. Higher gross returns were obtained when full quantity of poultry manure was applied as basal dose in Experiment 11. Application of300 kg N through 2: 1 ratio of organic- chemical N substitution registered higher gross returns in Experiment II. Net returns was higher when 200 kg N ha! was applied. Increasing N level beyond 200 kg was not economic in Experiment I using farm yard manure as organic source. When full quantity of poultry manure was applied completely as basal dose, higher net returns was obtained in Experiment H. Benefit-cost ratio decreased when N level was enhanced beyond 200 kg ha' in Experiment I. Higher benefit - cost ratio was recorded when poultry manure was applied in full dose as basal dressing. Study revealed the favourable influence of organic sources; farm yard manure and poultry manure on fruit quality, shelf life and soil properties. The suitability of poultry manure as organic source for vegetable cultivation was also established by this study.ThesisItem Open Access Inter-relationship of applied nutrients on growth, productivity and latex flow characteristics of havea brasiliensis muell. arg.(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1993) Punnoose, K I; KAU; Sreedharan, CThree field experiments were conducted in three locations representing the major rubber growing regions in South India to study the response to nutrient applications on growth characters, yield and latex flow characteristics and to study the inter-relationship between soil and plant nutrients on yield. It was also envisaged to assess the relative response in the different locations and to make economic analysis of the benefit of manuring. Three levels of 0, 40 and 80 N ha-1, 0, 30 and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 0, 40 and 80 kg k2O ha-1 and two levels of 0 and 10 kg MgO ha-1 were used. A 33 x 2 partially confounded factorial split plot experiment in randomised block design with two replications was followed. The 80 kg level of N and 30 and 40 kg levels respectively of P and K were optimum for girth increment in all the locations. Application of Mg was also beneficial. For virgin bark thickness the 40, 30 and 40 kg levels of N, P and K respectively were sufficient in all the locations and application of Mg was not beneficial. For bark renewal 80 kg N was optimum at Thodupuzha whereas the 40 kg level was sufficient in the other locations. The 60 kg level of P was useful at Kulasekharam and Thodupuzha while 30 kg was sufficient at Balussery. The 40 kg level of K was optimum in all the locations and application of Mg was not beneficial. The 80 kg level of N gave the maximum weight of leaf litter in all places while for P and K the 30 and 40 kg levels respectively were sufficient. Magnesium was beneficial only at Balussery in one year. The 40, 30 and 40 kg levels respectively of N, P and K gave the highest total volume of latex in all the locations except at Balussery where 80 kg K was superior to 40 kg. Application of Mg was beneficial at Balussery while it had a reducing effect at Kulasekharam and no effect at Thodupuzha. Application of N and K reduced the plugging index and that of P and Mg increased it in all the locations. For dry rubber content, the 80 kg level of N was optimum at Kulasekharam while the 40 kg level was sufficient in the other locations. With regard to P and K the 30 and 40 kg levels respectively were sufficient. Application of Mg was beneficial only at Thodupuzha. In the case of yield of rubber 40 kg N and 30 kg P2O5 were found to be optimum in all locations. The 40 kg level of K2O was sufficient at Kulasekharam and Thodupuzha while the 80 kg gave the highest yield at Balussery. At Thodupuzha and Balussery application of Mg was beneficial while at kulasekharam it reduced the yield. Application of N increased the organic carbon content of soil. The available P, K and Mg contents of soil were increased by the application of the respective nutrients. The N, P, K and Mg contents of leaf and latex were increased by application of the respective nutrients. Application of P as rock phosphorus also increased the available Ca content of soil and Ca contents of leaf and latex. The yield of rubber was positively correlated with girth increment, rate of bark renewal, initial flow rate, total volume and dry rubber content of latex and negatively with plugging index. Yield was also positively correlated with the available N, P, K and Ca contents of soil N, K and Ca contents of leaf and P and K contents of latex and negatively correlated with Mg contents of soil and leaf. The strongest correlations with yield were given by soil N, latex P and K and leaf Ca. Total volume of latex was positively correlated with the available N, P, K and Ca contents of soil, N, K and Ca contents of leaf and P and K contents of latex. The dry rubber content of latex was positively correlated with the available N, P and Ca contents of soil, N, K and Ca contents of leaf and N, P, K and Ca contents of latex. The plugging index was positively correlated with the P and Ca contents and negatively with the N and K contents of soil, leaf and latex. Positive correlations, were obtained between soil and leaf nutrients, soil and latex nutrients and leaf and latex nutrients in the case of N, P, K and Ca. In the case of yield of rubber 40 kg N and 30 kg P were found to be optimum in all the locations. The 40 kg level of K was sufficient at Kulasekharam and Thodupuzha while the 80 kg level gave the highest yield at Balussery. Application of Mg was beneficial at Thodupuzha and Balussery while at Kulasekharam it reduced the yield. An overall evaluation of the economic analysis indicated that 40 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O were the optimum doses in all the three locations. Application of Mg was profitable only at Thodupuzha.ThesisItem Open Access Rice based cropping system analysis in kerala(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1993) Chidananda Pillai, M R; KAU; Sreedharan, CWith the objectives of identifying the most economic crop combination for the double crop wet rice fields of Kerala and to assess soil fertility changes due to rice based cropping systems and also to find out the residual effects of the summer crops on the succeeding rice crops an investigation was conducted at the R.A.R.S. Pattambi in a split – split plot design, for a period of two years. The salient findings of the investigation are as follows. In the Cassava-rice-rice system 25 per cent saving was recorded for P and K for maximum grain yield of kharif rice than the recommended doses. A saving of 50 per cent each of P and K was recorded for the maximum straw yield than the recommended doses. In cowpea–rice-rice system for maximum grain yield of kharif rice there was a saving of 25 per cent of P and K than recommended doses. The same trend followed for the maximum yield of strew also. In groundnut –rice-rice system, for maximum grain yield of kharif rice there was a saving of 25 per cent of P and K than recommended doses. For the production of maximum straw yield full dose of recommended nutrients were required. In bhindi– rice-rice system for maximum grain yield of kharif rice there was a saving of 50 per cent of P and K than recommended doses. For the production of maximum straw yield full dose of recommended nutrients were essential. In rice-rice-rice system for maximum grain yield a saving of 25 per cent of P and K was recorded than recommended doses. For the production of maximum straw yield full dose of recommended nutrients were required. In fallow-rice-rice system for maximum grain yield full dose of recommended nutrients were essential, whereas for the production of maximum straw yield a saving of 25 per cent of P and K than the full dose was recorded. In cassava, rice and fallow systems for the manifestation of residual effect to the rabi rice, balanced nutrients at high doses are to be applied to the preceding kharif crop where as in the cowpea, groundnut and bhindi systems, residual effects of nutrients are seen manifested to the rabi rice crop even when the kharif rice crop is applied with medium doses of nutrients. There was a trend of slight decrease in the organic carbon content of the soil under all the cropping systems. The status of available nitrogen and potash after one and two year crop sequences also followed the above trend. Regarding the status of phosphorus in the soil, there was a slight increase after one and two year crop sequences. Cassava system produced maximum yield in terms of energy value followed by groundnut. From the economic point of view bhindi system gave the maximum net return. Maximum dry matter production (biomass production potential) was recorded in the cassava system followed by groundnut system. A vegetable crop like bhindi or a tuber crop like cassava seem to be more profitable than growing rice in summer season in the double crop wet rice fields of Kerala, rice being least economic. Among the cropping systems rice-rice-rice system generates maximum employment opportunities for the farm labourers with maximum job opportunities for women labourers as well.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of cover crops on nutrient dynamics in the rubber plantations(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1995) Prathapan, K; KAU; Sreedharan, CThree field experiments were conducted at Bethany Estate, Mukkampala, Kanyakumari District from February 1991 to October 1993 to study the effect of cover crops on the nutrient dynamics in immature, mature rubber plantation and an open area. In Experiment I there were two cover crops viz. Pueraria phaseoloides and Mucuna braceata and five levels of NPK viz. 0:0:0, 0:30:30, 10:30:30, 0:60:60 with one year old RRII-105, replicated thrice and statistically laid in RBD. In Experiment II there was one cover crop Mucuna sp alone with five levels of NPK as above with 8 years old RRII-105 replicated 4 times and statistically laid in RBD. In Expt. III there were 10 microplots, with both cover crops. N, P, K, Ca, Mg content of both Hevea and cover crops were increasing as the crops growth progressed. Fertilizer application to cover crops improved the Hevea leaf nutrient content than the absolute control. Among the levels 10:30:30 was found optimum. Mucuna was found better than Pueraria in increasing the Hevea leaf nutrient content. Girth increment was better with 10:30:30. This was found to be optimum under both experiments. More height increment was observed in this level, as well as in cover cropped treatments when compared to absolute control. Biomass production of cover crops were maximum at 10:60:60 followed by 10:30:30 under both experiments. Biomass production, root weight and length were higher in Mucuna and it was found increasing as the crop growth progressed. Nodule count was higher in Pueraria and the fresh weight of nodule per plant was higher in Mucuna as the size of its nodule was found bigger. Soil Moisture retention capacity was found higher under cover cropped plots at both shallow (0-30cm) and deeper (30-60cm) soil depths at-0.033 and -1.5 Mpa pressures than control. Pore space and aggregation percentage were improved whereas bulk density decreased. Among the levels of NPK 10:30:30 was found optimum in improving the soil physical properties. The percentage of improvement was found greater at shallow depth of soil than deeper. Soil moisture content during summer months were improved in the cover cropped area. The soil moisture in than the top soil (0-30cm) was lesser than the bottom soil (30-60cm) in Pueraria grown plots. This trend was reverse in the case of Mucuna. Growing of cover crops improved the microbial population of bacteria, fungi and phosphate solubilising organisms. The level 10:30:30 was found optimum for the better microbial activity. 10:30:30 was found optimum for better yield and Latex Flow Characteristics. Covercropping has increased the latex yield by 15-20%. 10:30:30 was optimum for better leaf litter production of Hevea. In cover cropped plots the leaf litter production was higher and wintering was delayed by 26-30 days over the control. This has enhanced 10 additional tapping days. Girth is positively correlated with cover crop biomass, nutrient uptake, soil available nutrients, soil moisture contents and Hevea leaf nutrient contents. Strongest correlation for girth was found with Hevea leaf N content, and uptake of N by cover crops, suggesting the importance of foliar diagnosis. Yield was negatively correlated with Mg content of soil.ThesisItem Open Access Development of diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in relation to yield and quality characteristics(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Sreekumaran, V; KAU; Neelakandan Potty, NAn investigative analysis was undertaken during 1993-96 to work out an objective and effective technology for nutritional management of black pepper based on cause and effect relationship. A critical and comparative evaluation of the available methods in this connection, viz. critical level concept, DRIS concept and management based on soil test data, soil analysis was envisaged. Approved standard procedures m estimating soil available and plant contents of nine elements, viz. N P K Ca Mg S Fe Zn and Mn and standard statistical methods were used in the study. A total of 1200 plants aged 14 years maintained at RARS, Ambalavayal were used as the test material in the study. A non-genic variability in yield ranging from 0.16 to 13.8 kg plant-1 was manifested by tile crop which indicated that variability shall be bridged upwards through managerial techniques. The range of available status of the elements in the soil analysis was very high. The lowest range of 0.9 to 4.5 ppm and the highest range of 144 to 1324 ppm were recorded by Zn and Ca, respectively. Soil pH ranged from 4.3 to 6.8. These were at the individual plant level. Foliar content as well as the range of the elements were much less and did not exactly related to soil available contents. Results also indicated that elements showed significant and specific interactions among themselves which varied with the elements. The pattern and magnitude of interactions at soil and plant level were different. Evaluation of soil test data of the study against approved soil test 0 - 9 scale classification showed that rhizosphere environments belonged to medium rich to very rich class and that it could not explain the yield variability and hence could not be a reliable basis of nutritional management in fertile soil. Examination of the foliar content of elements and their comparison with critical levels and ranges fixed by De Waard (1969) and Nybe (1986) respectively, showed that foliar content of all the elements in the study were above the critical levels which suggested that the critical level concept cannot be an adequate guiding principle in nutritional management of black pepper. It may be adequate only in situations where any element becomes specifically critical. Its inadequacy may also be due to the positive and negative interactions of elements in the plant system as well as due to the fact that yield is the resultant of a process involving several elements simultaneously. Negative relationship of P in the early stages and yield level of 6.5 and <1 kg berries at 2.33 and 2.35 per cent level and similar observations confirmed the above contention. DRIS concept was found to be more adaptable to explain the yield variability as it takes into account the content as well as interaction represented by ratios of every element with the others of the high yielding plants and tries to simulate them in low yielding plants. Results of the present study showed that by employing the DRIS concept and nutrient ratios, the content of every element can be identified at any time as absolutely deficient, relatively deficient, relatively sufficient, relatively excess and absolutely excess. This classification enabled to define the nature of recommendation as additive, deletive or ameliorative/corrective. Testing of the classification of the population into discriminative low and high - yielding sub-populations employing mean ± one SD showed that the system may be perfect when the magnitude of yield limiting factors in the entire range of low yield is the same. Possibility of variability in yield limiting factors could be accommodated by sub-dividing the lower yield group into smaller groups as was done in deciles in the study. The results appeared to show that the per plant variability can be accommodated with reasonable accuracy in such a system of micro level yield group identification and application of DRIS norms to them. The unique advantage of the DRIS system to reach the maximum realizable yield through progressive diagnosis based on progressive experimentation shall be substituted by the decile classification proposed in the study to a very good extent. Results of the present study showed that yield and quality factors are largely independent of each other and both can be improved by integrating the respective components even at the higher yield levels obtained in the present study. Analysis of inter-correlation matrix among elements at soil and plant level revealed the possibility of making specific recommendations to achieve progressive yield increases by working out quantity, intensity and rate of release characteristics. of elements in the soil in relation to absorption. Results in the present study showed that scientifically speaking the captions of DRIS indices or index values as " order of requirement" be modified as "order of limiting influences" - the former part of which is relative to metabolic deficiencies and the latter part to the metabolic excess. Imbalance indices have to be viewed as qualitative and not quantitative indices as they are relative, primarily based on the relative deficiencies and excesses which in turn are dependent upon the relative contents and valencies of the ions. The results of the study also revealed that with progressive increase in yield, causing .higher nutrient removal, will make the soil not only more deficient but also increase the frequency of application of nutrients more. The progressive increase in the number of limiting factors with yield improvement caused by higher rate of removal calls for more frequent monitoring and not treating the norm as static for a long period. The results of the experiment have brought to light a graded pattern of nutritional management for black pepper. The primary limiting factors were found to be high native content of Fe and Mn which will have to be ameliorated. Secondly, at the low yield level the yield is limited by a relative deficiency of Zn caused by high P calling for a temporary skipping of P; supplemented with N and K which can take the yield up to 5 kg plant-1. Excess S through the incidental application of prophylactic sprays of Bordeaux mixture and shortage of Ca and Mg appear to be the limiting factors at the higher yield class. Amelioration of acidity by supplying Ca + Mg carbonate, substitution of S containing fungicides and application of N and K shall constitute the recommendation, beyond which P may have to be applied.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of nutrition as Influenced by irrigation on growth and yield of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1994) Thomas, Varghese P; KAU; Sreedharan, CA field experiment was conducted in the oil palm plantations of the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) Research Centre, Palode, Kerala to study the response of mature oil palm to fertilizer and irrigation applications with respect to growth, yield and uptake of nutrients. There were four levels of fertilizers viz: F0- 0:0:0, F1-600: 300: 600, F2- 1200: 600: 1200 and F3-1800: 900: 1800 g N : p20 : k20 palm-1 year-1. The three levels of irrigation were: I0-no irrigation, I1-45 1 palm-1 day-1 and I2-90 1 palm-1 day-1. The 4x3 factorial experiment was laid out in randomised block design with three replications. The study was also envisaged to establish the importance of leaf nutrient ratios of yield group of palms and its application in identifying nutrient limitations through the Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) approach in oil palm. The influence of various climatic parameters on yield of oil palm was studied by relating the monthly yield of oil palm in the field experiment with the monthly weather variables as far behind as 42 months before harvest. Fertilizer application of 1200 g N+600 g P2O5+ 1200 g K2O palm-1 year-1 was found to improve the growth characters such as annual leaf production, number of leaves on the crown, dry matter production of leaf, trunk and bunches, total dry matter production and the crop growth rate. Increase in yield attributes such as number of female inflorescences, sex ratio, average single fruit weight and the number of bunches at F2 level contributed to the significantly high FFB yield at F2 level of fertilizer application. Both palm oil and palm kernel oil production were also maximum at F2 level. For the uptake of nutrients N,P and K by palm parts as well as by the palm as a whole, the F2 level of fertilizer application was found to be the optimum. It was observed that 79% of the total uptake of N, 77% of P and 82% of K are removed annually through leaves and bunches from the system. A K-Mg antagonism was also detected in nutrient uptake. The yield of palm was found positively correlated with leaf production, leaf area, net assimilation rate, number of bunches produced, vegetative dry matter, P and K in soil and the total uptake of N, P and K by the palm. Both net income and benefit cost ratio were also found favorable at F2 level of fertilizer application. Irrigation at I2 level has resulted in increased leaf production, leaflets per leaf, leaf area, leaf dry matter, mesocarp dry matter and the bunch dry matter. Physiological parameters like relative water content, leaf water potential, stomatal resistance, leaf temperature and net photosynthesis were all favourable at I2 level of irrigation. Female flower production, sex ratio, single fruit weight and number of bunches produced were also more in I2 treatment. This has resulted in increasing FFB production at I2 level. Palm oil production was also more at I2 level. Total uptake of N, P, K and Ca were also found to be maximum at I2 level of irrigation. The net profit and benefit cost ratio were also maximum at I2 level. Leaf nutrient ratios of palms in different yield groups: were used to evolve parameters and norms for Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) in oil palm. The range of nutrient ratios within the zones of balance, moderate imbalance and imbalance were determined which were also illustrated through DRIS charts for three nutrient combinations. The DRIS approach was used to evaluate the nutrient balancing of the different treatments of the field. The order of relative importance of the five nutrients was determined using nutrient imbalance index (NII) values as indicated below: K> P> N> Mg> Ca The F2 level of fertilizer application in the experiment was found to be the most balanced among the tested fertilizer levels. The possibility of magnesium becoming a potential limiting nutrient at higher levels of fertilizer application has been brought out from the study. The superiority of balanced nutrition in increasing total dry matter production and bunch yield became evident from the study. The studies on climatic relationship with yield revealed that the pattern of variation in monthly yield remained the same inspite of irrigation throughout the summer months. The relationship of monthly yield of oil palm with monthly climatic parameters was evaluated up to a period 42 months before harvest. When eight climatic parameters were considered together, the influence of these weather parameters at seven specific lag periods viz. 1-4, 9-10, 13-16, 20-23, 25-28, 32-33 and 37-40 were found important for oil palm. Of these the lag 25-28 was found to be the most important as the relationship of climatic parameters with yield at this period was more. Relative humidity, maximum temperature and rainfall were identified as the most important variables influencing palm yield. Using results obtained from regression studies yield prediction models were constituted. It is concluded that yield prediction using the three or more variables is possible for oil palm 26-28 months in advance of harvest. The salient findings from the study is that a fertilizer dose of 1200g N+ 600 g P2O5+ 1200 g K2O palm-1 year-1 and irrigation level of 90 l palm-1 day-1 applied through drip system during the summer months are required to obtain maximum FFB yield from mature oil palm. The order of importance of nutrients for oil palm is determined as K> P> N> Mg> Ca. With the above level of fertilizer application the palms were found to have a more balanced nutrition. However continued application of fertilizers might possibly lead to magnesium deficiency unless corrective measures are adopted. Relative humidity, maximum temperature and rainfall are found to be the most important climatic parameters influencing oil palm yields. The influence of climatic parameters at seven lag periods 1-4, 9-10, 13-16, 20-23, 25-28, 32-33 and 37-40 were found to be more pronounced on palm yield. From these studies it became possible to predict oil palm yields 26-28 months in advance using models based on these weather parameters.
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