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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Coping strategies of flood affected farmers in Thrissur district(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture ,Vellanikkara, 2021) Meghna, Gireesh; KAU; Sreevalsan, J MenonThe study was conducted among 80 flood affected paddy farmers and 80 flood affected banana farmers in Thrissur district to assess their coping strategies for mitigating the impact of flood of 2018 that devastated Kerala. The impact of flood was manifest as changed cropping pattern, labour disengagement, silt deposition in fields and temporary displacement of farmers. The impact on well water contamination and change in total cropped area were considerably less consequential. The overall average coping strategy index of the flood affected farmers was 66.69. The coping strategy index of paddy and banana farmers were 69.34 and 64.04 respectively. Majority of the farmers had medium level of coping strategy. The coping strategy index was constructed using the four components viz., institutional coping, psychological coping, technological coping and economic coping. In the case of institutional coping, farmers received more support from voluntary organizations and Krishi bhavans. Majority of the farmers had medium to high level of achievement motivation, decision making ability, environmental orientation and faith and belief orientation. Agricultural technology coping such as liming, nutrient management, pest, disease management and field sanitation have been adopted by majority of the farmers. Almost all paddy and banana farmers disposed off their assets and borrowed money from banks. Almost all paddy farmers incurred extensive losses in their farms, livestock and household articles at an estimated mean loss of about rupees 1,31,171 per homestead. All banana farmers incurred losses in their farms, livestock and household articles at an estimated average loss of about rupees 1,07,110 per homestead. The average asset disposal value of banana farmers was Rupees 2,27,101 which was higher than that of paddy farmers whose disposal value was Rupees 2,08,488. The average residual funds available for paddy and banana farmers was more than rupees 4.50 lakhs and this fund was utilized to cover the losses due to agricultural and non-agricultural entities. Almost all farmers used the funds mustered to survive the loss due to floods. The average residual funds available for banana farmers was higher than that of paddy farmers. The coping strategy index of farmers of Koratty panchayat was higher than those Padiyur panchayat. When crop-wise comparisons are made, flood affected paddy farmers were observed to be coping better than banana farmers. The coping strategy indices between paddy and banana farmers are observed to have a significant relationship. However there is no relationship between panchayat wise coping strategies of farmers. The interaction between crops and panchayats has a significant relationship with the coping strategy index of farmers. Majority of the farmers were males who had completed high school level education and were in the age group of 40 to 60 years. Majority of the farmers were under the small and marginal farmers category with more than 21 years of experience in farming. Their level of extension agency contact, mass media exposure, social participation and risk orientation were medium. Farmers’ political participation was found to be low. All farmers received flood related monetary compensation from the government. More than one fourth of the farmers diversified their enterprises but one fifth reduced their enterprises and half of the them maintained the enterprises as such as a result of flood. Farm size, risk orientation and extension agency contact had positive and significant relationship with coping strategy index. Farm size had positive and significant relationship with institutional coping, psychological coping and technological coping and economic coping. Increased risk orientation enhanced psychological coping and a smaller family size were found to enhance economic coping.ThesisItem Open Access Skill gap analysis among rural youth in rice farming(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Thenmozhi, C; KAU; Helen, SThe present scenario of agriculture demands a competent youth. On contrary, there is decreasing participation of youth in agriculture over time due to lack of appropriate knowledge, adequate skills, perceived low status etc. Hence, there is a need to focus on improving the skills of rural youth involved in rice farming for enhancing the agricultural production. The present study was conducted among 120 rural youth engaged in rice farming from four blocks of Palakkad district viz. Kuzhalmannam, Kollengode, Nenmara and Chittur. Majority of the rural youth respondents were males in the age group of 30 to 35 years. Majority of the rural youth were holding less than one hectare of land with five to ten years of experience in farming. Majority of the rural youth were graduates and were engaged in farming as well as employed in the private sector with an income of rupees 1 to 3 lakhs per annum. Majority of the rural youth possessed a sprayer and almost all the respondents owned a smartphone. One-third of the rural youth had received trainings on farming and allied activities. More than half of the rural youth had medium level of social participation, scientific orientation, information seeking behaviour, innovativeness and market orientation. More than two-third of the respondents had medium level of economic motivation, achievement motivation and knowledge level in rice farming. The most preferred occupation by majority of rural youth in Palakkad district was government service. The least preferred occupation by rural youth was taking up the sericulture sector. Majority of the youth in Kuzhalmannam block preferred government service. The most preferred occupation by the rural youth in Kollengode block was farming. Most of the rural youth in Nenmara block opted for business. Majority of the youth residing in Chittur block preferred private service. There was a high degree of concordance among rural youth from four blocks of Palakkad district in preferring their occupation. The existing skill level of rural youth in rice farming was 69.73. The overall general skill of rural youth was 73.99. The overall managerial skill of rural youth in rice farming was 71.97. The overall communication skill of rural youth was 68.18. The overall technical skill level of rural youth in rice farming was 64.79. The overall skill gap among rural youth involved in rice farming was 30.27. The highest skill gap was found among rural youth in technical skills with a mean of 35.21. The overall gap in general skills among rural youth was 26.01. Among the general skills, learning skills had the highest gap with a mean value of 28.63. The overall gap in managerial skills among rural youth was 28.03. Time management had the highest skill gap among the managerial skills with a mean value of 30.97. The overall gap in communication skills among rural youth was 31.82 in which ICT skills topped the list with a mean value of 48.33. Block-wise analysis revealed that rural youth from Kollengode block had the highest skill gap with a mean rank of 34.42 whereas rural youth from Nenmara block showed the lowest skill gap with a mean rank of 26.53. Three-fourth of the rural youth in the study area belonged to the category of medium level of skill gap in rice farming. Farming experience, social participation, trainings received, extension agency contact, economic motivation, scientific orientation, knowledge level, information seeking behavior, achievement motivation, innovativeness and market orientation had positive and significant relationship with the skill level of rural youth in rice farming. Educational status had a negative association with the skill level of rural youth in rice farming. For every one unit increase in the level of economic motivation, information seeking behavior and achievement motivation of rural youth, the probability to acquire above average skills in rice farming increases by 2.765, 2.462 and 2.638 units respectively. The strategies to bridge the skill gap among the rural youth in rice farming includes organizing skill-oriented training programmes at regular intervals on latest technologies. Networking and formation of rice farming youth groups would create a sense of social security and sustain their interest in rice farming. Institutional support and incentives for starting rice-based enterprises may be provided to enhance the incomegenerating opportunities in rice farming. Awareness about ICT initiatives in agriculture and effective usage of social media tools would improve their skills in rice farming. Consorted efforts may be initiated to retain youth in rice farming through effective utilization of skill development programmes of the central and state governments.ThesisItem Open Access Developing a framework of social audit for evaluating projects on climate resilient agriculture in Malawi(Department of Agriculture Extension,College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Joseph Timothy Before; KAU; Jiju P AlexSocial audit as a tool for evaluating development projects and has been found to be efficient for appraising projects in various sectors like health, natural resource management, agriculture, community development, water sanitation and hygiene, land conservation etc. In spite of the interventions by governments and non-governmental organization to ensure food security, agricultural development projects in most countries around the world had been affected with number of issues including climate change, corruption, lack of participatory evaluation mechanism as well as poor involvement of communities in decision making processes. The scenario is not different in Malawi either, specifically Phalombe district which faces a number of climate change problems like floods and droughts throughout the year. The present study which followed expo-facto design was undertaken to assess the effectiveness of projects on climate resilient agriculture that are implemented in Phalombe, Malawi. The study analyzed the outcomes, constraints and impact of selected projects and evolved a framework of social audit for evaluating such projects. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and the results have been presented quantitatively and descriptively. A total of 120 respondents from three Extension Planning Areas of Tamani, Kasongo and Mpinda were purposively selected for the study since they had participated in climate resilient agriculture projects. The sample also included 15 staff from the three NGOs that were selected for the study. It was found that 96 female farmers (78.3%) and 24 males (21.7%) had participated in the study which showed that more women were taking part in climate resilient agriculture projects compared to men. The research also revealed that manypeople who participated in climate resilient agriculture projects were married and most of them had education upto primary school level (84.2%). Secondary level education was found to have been acquired by 8.3% of the total respondents. Lower level of education was found to contribute to poor demanding of transparency and accountability from NGOs. Assessment of the agreement of respondents on severity of constraints showed that Kendall’s coefficient of concordance W= 0.5, significant at 1 per cent which proved that there was high degree of concordance among the 120 respondents in ranking the constraints according to their importance. The major constraints identified by the beneficiaries were: drying up of water resources, drought/ flood, small quantity of food, late delivery of inputs and poor involvement in decision making The results also showed that both beneficiaries and stakeholders agreed that AEDO and AEDC, NGO staff, Village Headman, Lead farmer, VCPC, ACPC, VDC, Community Policing, ASHP and Community Development Assistant should be part of social audit process. The components identified for social audit of climate resilient agriculture included training programmes, muster rolls, materials procured, input distribution, cash distribution and funding. Based on the study it could be proposed that all actors mentioned in the study should be part of the process. The framework of social audit formulated as part of the study suggested the important aspects that should be subjected to social audit. This would help devise efficient ways of conducting social audit of climate resilient projects in Malawi as it had been evolved through a participatory process involving all the stakeholders of climate resilient development projects in agricultural sector.ThesisItem Open Access Scenario analysis of Mushroom microenterprises(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Swathy Suresh, K S; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty, MMushrooms have aroused man's interest since the dawn of civilization. They are considered as one of the most important high quality protein rich vegetable crops. Mushroom entrepreneurship if promoted, will offer plenty of advantages and have the capacity to assist rural society in establishing more long term economic growth. Kerala has an immense potential for mushroom production due its low cost, easy availability of raw materials, and round-the-year production capability. Even though a field with great scope for exploration, the studies with extension aspects are very limited and in this backdrop the present study was conducted to know about the current scenario of mushroom cultivation. The current study entitled “Scenario analysis of mushroom microenterprises” was conducted in Kerala Agricultural University. Data collection was carried out among 120 mushroom entrepreneurs. Sixty mushroom entrepreneurs each from Thrissur and Palakkad districts, mainly engaged in production (spawn / mushroom) and marketing; production, processing and marketing were randomly selected. The independent and dependent variables were selected for the study on the basis of judges rating. An interview schedule was prepared to collect data from mushroom entrepreneurs. Then the collected data were arranged, scored and analyzed using suitable statistical tools. The results revealed that among the 120 mushroom units, majority (56.66%) units were production and marketing type and 43.33 per cent of mushroom units were production, processing and marketing type. The analysis of mushroom unit structure showed that, majority (40.83%) of mushroom entrepreneurs had production unit size above 500 sq.feet; 54.16 per cent had kutcha type of mushroom shed; family or group labour was the source of labour for 75.83 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs and majority of them had equipments in the range of 2 to 4 in numbers. A large proportion (43.33%) of mushroom entrepreneurs belongs to the age category 31-40 years and around 40.83 per cent of them were graduates. Agriculture along with mushroom cultivation was the family occupation of majority (37.5%) of the mushroom entrepreneurs. Nearly 41.66 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs were received income per season in the range of Rs/- 25,000 – 50,000 and around 51.66 per cent had obtained yield per season above 150 Kg. Majority (28.33%) per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had an experience of two and half to three years and about 30.83 per cent choose direct selling to consumers and local markets as their major marketing avenue. For transporting the mushroom products 68.33 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs were used their own vehicle. Majority of the mushroom entrepreneurs had medium level of economic motivation (80%), risk orientation (54.16%) and extension contact (71.66%). In case of mobility, the frequency of visit for most of the mushroom entrepreneurs were to nearby panchayath and town for various purposes. Institutional supports like training and SHM subsidy were availed by majority (48.33%) of the mushroom entrepreneurs. The various institutions providing support includes Kerala Agricultural University, Extension Centres, Research Organizations, State Horticulture Mission and Kudumbasree District Mission. The analyses of producer characteristics were carried out using two way contingency table and chi-square test, and inferred that there exist a positive significant relationship between the type of mushroom shed and yield; marketing avenue and income; marketing avenue and family occupation. Other salient findings from the study revealed that majority (61.66%) of mushroom entrepreneurs were females and nearly 85.83 per cent were sole entrepreneurs. Around 81.66 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had their own source of investment for mushroom cultivation. Oyster mushroom was the major type cultivated by 68.33 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs, 35 per cent of them were collecting mushroom spawns from various government sources and nearly 79.16 per cent didn’t face any problem regarding the quality of yield and spawn. Around 84 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had trade mark for their mushroom products. Polythene cover was the packing material used by 75.83 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs. The performance of mushroom units includes four dimensions ie., Social Capital Indicators (SCI), Good Mushroom Cultivation Practices (GMCP), Efficiency Indicators (EI) and Incremental Expansion (IE). The overall performance score shows that, majority (62.5%) of mushroom units performs under medium category. Using discriminant analysis and binary logistic regression, a comparison was done with dimensions of performance index and type of units. The result stated that the dimension Social Capital Indicators (SCI) is the significantly discriminating one for type of units. The relationship of independent variables with the performance of mushroom units had been analyzed using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient method. The independent variables like size of production unit, income per season, yield per season, experience, type of mushroom shed, marketing avenue, risk orientation, extension contact, mode of transport for sale of goods and institutional support shows a positive significant relationship and the variables such as source of labour and family occupation shows a negative significant relationship with the performance of mushroom units. The major constraints faced by mushroom entrepreneurs were marketing difficulty, price instability and lack of market information. Finally, strategic options such as promotion of direct marketing method, extension interventions, creating public awareness, providing trainings, etc. were suggested for the improvement of mushroom enterprises. A futuristic scenario analysis was also conducted to predict the futuristic possibilities of mushroom enterprises in Kerala.ThesisItem Open Access Technological capability analysis of coconut based enterprises(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture ,Vellanikkara, 2021) Shilpa, P; KAU; Binoo, P BonnyCoconut based enterprises holds great significance in the state as coconut is the prime homestead crop of Kerala. These enterprises are proven to generate higher economic returns for the coconut sector. Technological capability (TC) plays key role in the performance of the hundreds of enterprises involved in manufacturing and marketing of various coconut products. Technological capability (TC) encompasses all activities, physical systems, skills and knowledge bases, managerial systems, and entrepreneurial values that generate unique benefit for an enterprise. Thus, it formed a determining factor in the efficiency and effectiveness of enterprises. Therefore, an understanding of TC of coconut-based enterprises holds great importance for state’seconomy in terms of entrepreneurship development. It was in this rationale, the present study was undertaken to document and characterize coconut enterprises based on the major products and services, to map the technology use pattern of these enterprises, to evaluate the technological capabilities of the selected enterprises and to evolve a conceptual model for sustainable entrepreneurship development. The results of the studycan be used to decode the critical factors that form the basis the technological capability of coconut enterprises that can effectively redefine the coconut-based entrepreneurship in the state. The three districts from the state of Kerala viz. Thrissur, Kozhikode and Ernakulam which had the largest number of registered coconut processing enterprises were selected as the study area. The details of Micro Small Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) collected from the respective District Industries Centres (DICs) were used for the purposive selection of these districts. The enterprises under farmer collectives using the technological support from Coconut Development Board (CDB)functioning in these districts were also included under the study. The total sample size ofenterprises was fixed as 45 following the ratio of 20:10:15 in proportion to the number of registered coconut enterprises in the selected districts of Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kozhikode respectively. An additional eight social enterprises run by farmer collectives in theseselected districts were also selected. A total of 100 skilled workers involved in technology use in these enterprises were also selected as respondents in the study. Thus, the total sample size of the study was 153 comprising of the 45 MSME coconut entrepreneurs, 08 FPO CEOs and 100 skilled workers. The results delineated three major products from coconut enterprises based on productionproportion viz. coconut oil (81.14%), virgin coconut oil (VCO) (9.43%) and coconut paste (9.43%). Coconut oil was identified to have a production proportion of 80 per cent in micro enterprises while in small enterprises and in medium and social enterprises it recorded 90 and 76.93 per cent respectively. The technology use pattern of coconut enterprises was mapped based on the skill sets of the workforce related to communication skills, technical skills, problem solving skills, interpersonal skills and decision-making skills. The correspondence analysis result showed that problem solving skills was associated with both micro and small enterprises while decision making skills and technical skills were associated with small enterprises. The skill which assumedimportance in medium and social enterprises was interpersonal skill. The analysis of perceived skill competence of workforce across the enterprises revealed that, in micro enterprises workers expressed highest competence in problem solving while in small enterprises it was for technical skills while in the case of medium and social enterprises the workers perceived their expertise in decision making. The perceived skill gap analysis revealed that in micro enterprises the highest gap (with a score of 34.17) was in decision making and in small, medium and social enterprises were lacking more in problem solving skills with scores 30.96 and 24.22 respectively. Kruskal- Wallis test was performed to compare the perceived skill competence of workforce in different category of enterprises and it showed that there was a significant difference in the perceived skill competence of work force among the different categories of coconut enterprises. The technological capability of enterprises was estimated using technology capability index (TCI) with resources, level of technology use, market competency and coordination and accessibility as four macro indexes. The weightage for each macroindex was calculated from the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The average TCI score for the entire coconut-based enterprises were found to be 0.34 and the enterprise categories were giving importance for level of technology use (with a score of 0.66) in developing their technological capability followed by resources (0.5). There was a significant positive correlation between technological capability and educational status, skill competence of workforce at 5 per cent level of significance and a significant positive correlation between the level of extension contact, mass media contact, social participation, managerial competency, level of technology use, and production capacity at 10 per cent level of significance. Scaling readiness of technologies were measured as the product of innovation use and innovation readiness in the levels of management, technology use and marketing. The micro enterprises got highest score of scaling readiness which in turn indicates more interventions can be made with less investment in the existing technological ecosystem of these enterprises. The study suggested a frame work combining selected dimensions to elucidate sustainable entrepreneurship development in coconut enterprises. Sustainable entrepreneurship development in coconut enterprises has been defined as the function of technological capability of enterprises, skill competence of workforce, scale readiness of innovations and forward and backward linkages of the enterprise. The technology capability dimensions identified were resources, level of technology use, market competency and coordination and accessibility. The skill competence determined the technology use pattern in coconut enterprises from the significant relation with TC. Innovation was another important attribute of technology capability which was analyzed in termsof its scaling readiness. Scaling readiness defined the status of an enterprise to upgrade with technological innovations at different levels. The forward and backward linkages in enterprise such as value and supply chain channels were also having paramount importance in the determining the sustainable enterprise performance.ThesisItem Open Access Market-Led extension initiatives of the department of agriculture development and farmers’ welfare, Kerala: an analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Parvathy, Sasidharan; KAU; Jiju, P AlexSustainability of agriculture can be ensured only by building up the capacity of agricultural systems to increase productivity and maximize profit. For this, farmers have to be profusely supported to link production with market and to deliver quality produce to consumers, this will remain an uphill task for the small and marginal farmers. Also, farmers should be oriented to new systems of market linked production and the protocols of value chain and supply chain management. It has been widely reported that lack of market-oriented production by resource poor farmers is mainly due to absence of appropriate and timely information on technology and market trends. This has necessitated introduction of a diversified, demand driven and technology intensive system of extension and advisory service by the government. Market led extension system is an adaptation of conventional extension system with functional components to assist farmers in marketing processes. Even though the concept of market led extension has gained prominence in the academic circle, it has not been mainstreamed in development initiatives. Department of Agriculture acts as the most important agency in field level extension. Kerala, has of late laid increasing emphasis on marketing of produce and value addition through various programmes. Hence, it is important to study the market led extension initiatives in the state. Thrissur district was purposively selected for the study owing to the presence of a number of marketing interventions implemented in the district and also due to the fact that, Karshakamitra was piloted in the same district. Along with Karshakamitra, two other programmes viz., Ecoshop and Weekly market, were also selected for the study. Ten panchayats were randomly selected from the four blocks in the district. The sample included 120 beneficiaries and 24 extension personnel. The mean perceived effectiveness score of beneficiaries and extension personnel on the three programmes revealed that except in the case of market intelligence, all other dimensions including service, advisory, facilitation and organization, extension personnel had the highest mean perceived effectiveness score compared to beneficiaries. Comparing the perceived effectiveness of beneficiaries for the three programmes using Kruskal Wallis test, it was observed that Ecoshop had the highest mean perception score (72.15) compared to Karshakamitra (62.31) and Weekly Market (47.04). Comparing the dimensions of perceived effectiveness, beneficiaries of the three programmes differed significantly in their perception on the effectiveness of advisory services, facilitation and organization. In the case of service and market intelligence, perception levels almost remained the same. The profile of respondents showed that majority of them belonged to old age (55.8%) category and 82.5% of the respondents were male farmers. Majority of the respondents (70.83%) were well experienced farmers, with 47.5% of them having a total land area greater than 1 acre. As far as vegetable production is concerned, 50.83% of the respondents had volume of production less than 20 Kg. Majority of the respondents belonged to medium category for extension contact, market orientation, knowledge on marketing strategies and attitude towards programmes. Effect of personal and psychological attributes of beneficiaries on perceived effectiveness showed that farming experience, volume of production and knowledge on marketing strategies were the significant attributes which helped the respondents to be categorized under more perceived effectiveness group. Five factors were extracted through Principal Component Analysis with a cumulative variance of 79%. These factors were named as farmer’s endowment factor, personal attributes, orientation factor, attitude and knowledge on the basis of variables having higher factor loading for each factor. Extracted factors were used as independent variables to fit a regression of perceived effectiveness on these factors. The variance explained by the model fitted was 57% with the third factor more significant to predict the dependent variable (market orientation and extension contact). Constraints faced by beneficiaries in marketing were categorized into five groups viz., general, production related, market infrastructure related, financial and information and communication related constraints. Constraints faced by extension personnel in the implementation of the programme was also noted. A significant value of Kendall’s coefficient of concordance showed that there existed strong agreement among the respondents to rank the constraints. It has been recommended that marketing initiatives should be implemented location specifically based on the production pattern and marketing strategies of the particular area. Awareness programmes need to be conducted on scientific farming and marketing aspects in collaboration with other institutes and government agencies. Further, marketing officials should be provided with proper training and capacity building programmes regarding marketing and related activities.ThesisItem Open Access Utilisation behaviour of registered farmers of selected agricultural produce market committees (APMCs) of Telangana state on e-nam portal(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Malliboina Mahesh Yadav; KAU; Sakeer Husain, ANational Agricultural Market (e-NAM) is a pan-India electronic trading platform launched in 2016 by Government of India. The e-NAM is a virtual market, but at the back end, there is a physical market which assists all the APMC related information and services through a single window system and it includes information about commodity arrivals and prices of the available commodity. The integration of markets across the country through a common e-platform ensures a transparent sale process. As on August 2020, 1000 markets from 18 States and 3 Union Territories were connected with e-NAM. The present study intended to analyse the process and functioning of e-NAM facilities under selected APMCs in Telangana State, the perception of farmers about e-NAM and its utilisation and to identify the constraints in availing e-NAMservices.The study was conducted in Hyderabad and Warangal districts of Telangana state. A total of 90 respondents (60 farmers and 30 traders) formed the sample of the study using random sampling procedure. First of all, the study analysed and described the process and functioning of e-NAM. Besides, the results of the study revealed that majority (50%) of the farmers belonged to middle aged group, 88.33 per cent of farmers were males, and 50 per cent of farmers had small family size (<5 members in their family). With regard to their educational status, 31.67 per cent completed primary school level of formal education. Further, 66.37 per cent of farmers were depended on agriculture alone and 65 per cent were having more than 10 years of farming experience. Forty per cent each of the farmers possessed small farms (2.5-5 acres) and were having an annual income of ₹1 lakh to ₹2 lakhs. Nearly half of the farmers had savings between ₹50000-₹100000 and availed loans from cooperative banks (51.66%). Majority of the farmers had medium level of information seeking behaviour (56.67% farmers), medium level of decision making ability (65%), market orientation (56.67%) and economic motivation (66.66%). Though majority (90%) of the farmers were computer illiterate, all the farmers were able to use the basic functions of mobile phones. Three fourth of the traders belonged to middle aged group, all the traders were males, 50 per cent traders had medium sized family (5-8 members in their family), pursued high school level education (33.33%), and trading alone was the main occupation for 73.33 per cent traders with ₹2 -₹5 lakhs of annual income (63.34%) and ₹1 to ₹2 lakhs savings per annum (60%). Exactly 46.67 per cent of the traders availed loans from private banks with an interest rate of 10 to 20 per cent. Majority of the traders had medium level of information seeking behaviour (76.67%), market orientation (80%) and economic motivation (66.66%). All the traders were able to use computer and mobile phones. All the farmers perceived that weighing of the produces at e-NAM was done correctly. Similarly, 100 per cent of the farmers perceived that transaction cost to farm produce was not reduced through e-NAM. All the farmers were aware of the lot number generation, sale bills, grading, electronic weighing and bid creation, However, majority of the farmers were not aware of many of the facilities and services available in e-NAM. The farmers mainly utilised the eNAM portal for price checking followed by mobile number linking with e-NAM portal. All the other services were utilised by only a very few farmers. The study further revealed that educational status, computer literacy, m-literacy and awareness about e-NAM were having positive correlation with utilisation of e-NAM facilities, while age, farming experience, savings and decision making ability showed negative correlation with the utilisation of e-NAMfacilities. The traders also perceived that correct method was followed at e-NAM for weighing the produce. They further perceived that the marketing efficiency was very high with e-NAM, while better quality certificate was not available at e-NAM. All the traders were aware of most of the eNAM facilities and services unlike the farmers. The traders were mainly utilising e-NAM portal for mobile number linking followed by checking quality of the commodities and price checking. Use of warehouse facilities checking e-NAM MIS, grievance on e-NAM services were the underutilized services by the traders. The most important constraints faced by majority of the farmers were inadequate facilities for quality checking, inability to sell more number of commodities, poor knowledge on computer and internet and the limited number of bidders taking part in bidding. The most important constraints faced by traders were the problem of power failure, poor knowledge on computer and internet, lack of proper grading, and the less bidding time. Thus creating awareness among farmers and providing necessary skill in using various eNAM facilities and handholding them in effective utilisation of e-NAM would be crucial in the success of e-NAM in India.ThesisItem Open Access Tribal labour migration of Wayanad district: an impact analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2021) Mano Sandesh, V V; KAU; Anilkumar, AThe study entitled “tribal labour migration of Wayanad district: an impact analysis” was undertaken during 2016-2020at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, with the major objectives of studying the impact of tribal labour migration on the livelihood of tribespeople and the agricultural situation of Wayanad district. Factors influencing the tribal labour migration and their migration proneness were also studied. The study was conducted in all the four blocks of Wayanad district viz., Mananthavady, Sulthan Bathery, Kalpetta and Panamaram. From each block 30 tribal migrants, 10 tribal non migrants and 10 non tribal significant other respondents were selected randomly making a total of 200 respondents. The data collected were statistically analysed using arithmetic mean, percentage, correlation analysis and non parametric test. The study revealed that half of the respondents had medium level of livelihood capital index before migration. Most of the tribal migrants possessed medium level of human capital, social capital, natural capital and financial capital before migration. A lion share (61.66%) of the respondents had low level of physical capital before migration. The analysis of livelihood after migration revealed that more than half (60.83%) of the tribal migrants had high livelihood capital index after migration. Immense increase (30.6%) in physical capital of tribespeople due to migration was obvious from study results and it was remarkable for tribes belonging to Kattunaikan and Paniya communities. This caused a temptation for migration among tribal non migrants. A substantial number (85.83%) of tribal migrants had medium social capital and 73.33 per cent had medium of human capital after migration. There was a decrease in the social capital of tribespeople due to migration and this was an indication that tribal migrants were not actively involving in the social activities. After migration 83.33 per cent of tribal migrants had only low natural capital. This tremendous decrease in natural capital indicate poor use of natural resources by tribespeople. Majority (70.83%) of the tribal migrants had a high financial capital after migration. The increase in the financial capital and physical capital was highly significant in uplifting the livelihood capital index of tribal migrants. Sixty five per cent of the tribal non migrants had high livelihood capital index. Globalisation has also affected the life style, food habits and education of tribespeople. Cultural changes were observed among the young tribespeople and many of them have turned to non agricultural labour activities. This also helped them to achieve higher financial capital and there by increased livelihood capital index. Analysis of the relationship between the dependent variable livelihood capital index and profile characteristics of tribespeople revealed that, viz. age, annual income, education, land holding, experience in agriculture, level of aspiration and economic motivation correlated significantly. Marital status and wage per day correlated significantly to livelihood capital index before migration while they were not significant after migration. Most of the tribal migrants had medium migration proneness. Young tribespeople were found to be more prone to migration than middle or old aged tribespeople. Majority of the tribal non migrants had lower migration proneness and they assumed that for a sustainable livelihood, migration is not a necessary factor. On correlation analysis it was found that education, wage per day, political orientation, type of house, level of aspiration and risk preference positively and significantly correlated with migration proneness whereas age, marital status, debt and experience in agriculture correlated negatively with migration proneness. Regarding the nature of migration of tribal migrants, majority of the migrants were daily and seasonal migrants and none of them migrated permanently. A higher percentage of tribal migration was interstate. They migrated mostly to Coorg area via Kutta region of Thirunelli Panchayath and Karnataka via Mysore road to work as agricultural labourers mainly for ginger cultivation. The entire tribal migrants moved in groups and the decision to migrate was induced rather than self chosen. Majority of tribal migrants went for agriculture labour work and were non registered migrants. Unemployment or loss of employment was the main push factor for migration. Low wages, poverty, malnutrition, small holding, landlessness, decline of natural resources, frustration, alienation from community and indebtedness were other major push factors of migration. Superior opportunity for employment was the main pull factor for migration. Better job security, superior opportunity to earn higher income, opportunity to obtain desired specialization, education, skill or training and better food were other major pull factors of migration. Scarcity of agricultural labourers was the major consequence of tribal labour migration, which in turn caused a decrease in agricultural land area. Change in the cropping pattern of Wayanad district, use of agricultural land for non agricultural purposes and immigration of agricultural labourers from other states to Wayanad were found to be other consequences of tribal labour migration. Shortage of skilled labourers, significant change in wage structure and decline of indigenous knowledge were also the results of tribal labour migration. In the light of the study some of the important policy prescriptions for the consideration of the government are (i) create better local job opportunities in the agriculture sector (ii) strengthen police patrolling in the tribal colonies to control illegal marketing of alcohol (iii) implement stringent registration procedures for tribal who are migrating (iv) evaluate the livelihood of tribal migrants periodically (v) formulate new programs and activities to conserve the traditional life style of tribespeople (vi) open and maintain rehabilitation centers in tribal areas to reduce alcohol addiction among tribal migrants (vii) initiate counseling and guidance centers for tribal migrants (viii) conduct regular inspections at migratory places to discourage exploitation of tribespeople (ix) ensure decent and indiscriminating wage structure for tribespeople in their native places.ThesisItem Open Access Livelihood security of farm women in Kerala and Manipur: A comparative analysis(Kerala Agricultural University, 2021) Centy Ngasainao; KAU; Sangeetha, K GThe study entitled “Livelihood security of farm women in Kerala and Manipur: A comparative analysis” was conducted to assess and compare the livelihood security of farm women in Kerala and Manipur and analyze the relationship between personal, sociopsychological and cultural characteristics of the respondents and its relationship with livelihood security and delineate the constraints experienced by the farm women and formulate a sustainable livelihood security framework. The study was conducted in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala and Ukhrul district of Manipur. From each district, block having maximum number of farm women viz Vamanapuram from Kerala and Ukhrul North from Manipur were selected and from each block three panchayats with maximum number of farm women viz Vamanpuram, Pangode and Kallara from Kerala and Phungcham, Chingjaroi Khullen and Nungbi Khullen from Manipur were selected for the study. From each panchayat, 15 farm women were selected randomly. A total of 45 farm women were being surveyed from each district thereby comprising a total number of 90 respondents for the study. Livelihood security is the dependent variable and the scale developed by Baby (2005) was used to measure it. The six components of livelihood security selected through judges rating were food security, occupational security. educational security, habitat security, health security and social security. The ten independent variables of the study selected through judges rating included: age, education, annual income, family size, land holding, farming experience, mass media exposure, extension orientation, scientific orientation and risk orientation. From the results it could be seen that more than half of the respondents (57.78% and 62%) in Kerala and Manipur belonged to middle age group. 64.45 per cent and 36 percent of the respondents in Kerala and Manipur had education up to high school and 48.89 percent and 53.33 percent of the respondents in Kerala and Manipur had low level of income. More than half of the respondents (55.56%) in Kerala had small family size and 58 percent of the respondents in Manipur had medium family size. With regard to land holding most of the farm women (64.44 %) in Kerala were having small land holding and 62 percent of the respondents in Manipur were having large land holding. 75.56 percent and 84 percent of the respondents in Kerala and Manipur respectively were found under high farming experience category. Majority of the respondents (62.22 % and 66.67 %) in Kerala and Manipur were found under medium mass media exposure category. 75.56 percent and 53.33 per cent of the respondents in Kerala and Manipur had medium extension orientation and 64.44 percent and 71.11 percent of the respondents in Kerala and Manipur had medium level of scientific orientation. Majority of the respondents (75.56% and 68.89 %) in Kerala and Manipur had medium level of risk orientation. The study revealed that the majority of the respondents (51.11% and 64.44%) in Kerala and Manipur had a medium level of livelihood security. Majority of the respondents (77.78% and 68.89%) in Kerala and Manipur had medium availability and accessibility of resources and infrastructure. The biplot obtained from PCA of Kerala revealed that the components with the strongest relationship with PC1 were food, educational and habitat security, all relations being positive whereas occupational, social and health security contributed positively to PC2. The results of principal component analysis of Manipur– biplot, it was observed that PC1 is positively associated with educational, habitat and social security. Whereas PC2 is positively associated with food and occupational security. PC2 is negatively associated with health security. From the Mann-Whitney U test, it has been revealed that there was significant difference in food, occupational, educational, health and social security. Whereas habitat security is found to have no significant difference. From the correlation study it was revealed that the variables influencing livelihood security were education, annual income, family size, land holding, mass media exposure and risk orientation. The study also revealed that there was no significant association between livelihood security and the variables such as age, farming experience, extension orientation and scientific orientation. The major constraints faced by farm women in Kerala were insufficient funds, unavailability of good quality seeds, inadequate land for cultivation, insufficient training on farming, inadequate marketing facilities, crop loss due to wild animal attack, unavailability of fertilizers, insufficient irrigation facilities and lack of farm machineries. And the major constraints perceived by the farm women in Manipur were inadequate government support, insufficient marketing facilities, insufficient irrigation facilities, insufficient funds, inadequate transportation facilities, inadequate extension services, unavailability of inputs in time, inadequate storage facilities and improved method of cultivation and crop management are inadequate. The constraints experienced by the farm women need to be considered in order to improve the livelihood security of farm women. The major suggestions by the respondents of Kerala for enhancing their livelihood security were to improve funding for development of farm women, aadequate and timely supply of quality seeds, promote collective farming, ensure better delivery system of agriculture support services, create awareness on marketing, support to provide fencing to protect from wild animals, adequate and timely supply of inputs, promote rain water harvesting and measures for sufficient supply of farm machineries. And the major suggestions given by the respondents of Manipur for improving their livelihood security were to provide basic public services by the government, create awareness on marketing, promote rainwater harvesting, improve funding for development of farm women, improve public transportation services, improve existing extension services, adequate and timely supply of inputs, provide cold storage facilities and improved method of cultivation should be made available to farm women. Livelihood strategies were formulated at farm women and delivery system level to safeguard livelihood outcomes such as adequate availability of raw materials, efficient transportation facilities, ample marketing facilities, sufficient funds leading to more production and higher income.
