Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women in Thiruvananthapuram district
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Jayalekshmi, G; KAU; Shilaja, S
The present study under the title ''Entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women in Thiruvananthapuram district was undertaken to assess the entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women to study the personal and sociopsychological factors influencing entrepreneurial behaviour and the constraints experienced by the rural women in starting an enterprise. Rural women trained in mushroom cultivation and fruit and vegetable preservation were selected from College of Agriculture, Vellayani and Mitraniketan Vellanad. Thirty rural women each were selected from each centre for each enterprise. Thus 120 trained rural women were selected. Another 60 untrained rural women were also selected as control. Thus the total sample comprised of 180 with five groups of respondents. Data was collected using interview schedule and suitable statistical techniques were employed in the analysis of data. An entrepreneurial development index was developed and found that the factors such as economic motivation, risktaking ability, decision making ability, achievement motivation, management orientation, competition orientation and self confidence were the major dimensions of entrepreneurial behaviour. With regard to the profile of rural women, the rural women selected, both trained and untrained belonged to young age group and majority of them belonged to backward caste. Educational status and family educational status of the selected respondents were high school and above. More than 50 per cent of them have land holding ranging from 15-20 cents and annual income between Rs.15000-20000. More than 55 per cent of the rural women have taken up self employment. Above 50 per cent of the rural women have high information seeking behaviour, mass media contact, social participation, level of aspiration and attitude towards self employment. Majority of the rural women have low cosmopoliteness. Cent per cent of the trained rural women have high knowledge of the technology. Except rural women in group II & V all others have high entrepreneurial behaviour. Comparison of the five groups revealed that they were on par with respect to age, landholding, annual income and social participation. Majority of the trained rural women belonged to backward caste and untrained belonged to scheduled caste. The trained rural women differed significantly with the untrained in their educational status, family educational status, occupation, information seeking behavior and perceived knowledge of the technology. There was significant difference among the groups with respect to mass media contact, level of aspiration, cosmopoliteness and entrepreneurial behavior. Relationship of the personal and socio-psychological factors with the entrepreneurial behavior showed that in the case of group I, variables namely educational status of the family, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, level of aspiration, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology were positively and significantly correlated. In the case of group II, caste educational status of the respondents and family, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, social participation, level of aspiration, cosmopoliteness, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology were positively and significantly correlated with the entrepreneurial behavior. Only educational status of the family was found to have a positive and significant relationship with the entrepreneurial behavior of group III. In the case of group IV, caste, educational status of the respondent and family, annual income, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, cosmopoliteness, level of aspiration, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology were positively and significantly correlated with the entrepreneurial behaviour. In the case of group V a positive and significant relationship exists between entrepreneurial behavior and educational status of the respondent and family, annual income, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, social participation, cosmopoliteness, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology. With regard to the constraints experienced by the rural women, ‘Marketing problem and lack of financial assistance were the constraints in both the enterprises followed by non-availability of spawn in mushroom cultivation and high cost of fruits in fruit and vegetable preservation.
Open Access
Differential adoption of plant protection technology by farmers of Kerala - a critical analysis
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1995) Meera, B; KAU; Thyagarajan Nair, G
Indian agriculture has undergone intensive farming with the introduction of high yielding varieties of crops. Adoption of improved technology and management practices for boosting up production of food grains have resulted in serious pest and disease complexes warranting intensive and extensive use of plant protection chemicals. A number of limitations and adverse side effects such as pest resistance to pesticides, pesticide residues, health hazards, environmental pollution and ecological imbalance have been identified recently. The components of plant protection technology were taken to study the differential adoption in important crops like paddy and vegetables by the farmers and explained the variations in their cognitive, affective and connative components of behaviour with a selected set of independent variables. The study analysed the indigenous practices of plant protection being followed by farmers and also their perception about the impact of pesticides on environmental aspects. The major constraints experienced by the farmers in the adoption of plant protection technology along with the suggestions to overcome the same were also studied. The study was undertaken in two districts of Kerala viz., Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha. A sample of 120 farmers each from the two districts was selected and the total sample size for the study was 240.The data were collected using an interview schedule and analysed using suitable statistical techniques. There was significant difference among the farmers of Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha districts with regard to their knowledge about chemical and cultural methods of plant protection. Majority of farmers of both the districts belonged to low knowledge group. The farmers of both the districts were ignorant about biological, physical and integrated methods of plant protection methods. Majority of the farmers of both the districts possessed favourable attitude towards chemical method of plant protection. The farmers of Alappuzha district were significantly higher adopters of plant protection methods than the farmers of Thiruvananthapuram district. Majority of the farmers of both the districts belonged to low perception category with regard to their perception about the utility and practicability of plant protection methods. Crops yield index and scientific orientation emerged as significant independent variables in the correlation and multiple regression analysis with regard to the farmers of both the districts. The practices, viz., controlled application of nutrients for reducing pest and disease attack in paddy and use of ‘thulsikeni’ in ‘pandals’ to trap and kill fruit flies in vegetables were judged as the most effective and scientifically rational practices adopted by farmers. The farmer’s perception about the impact of pesticides on environmental aspects was very low and majority of them belonged to low perception category. The constraint ‘untimely supply and high cost of imputs’ was the most important constraint experienced by the farmers of Thiruvananthapuram district, while ‘lack of proper drainage facilities’ was the most serious constraint experienced by the farmers of Alappuzha District. The most important suggestion given by the farmers to overcome the constraints was to ‘develop simple and more compatible plant protection technologies’ and the most important suggestion given by the experts to overcome the constraints experienced by the farmers was to ‘impart adequate training to farmers as well as extension workers on IPM practices’. The strategic model developed by integrating the salient findings of the present study, emphasized the importance of popularizing effective plant protection technology among the farmers in ecologically sensitive rice and vegetable production systems in Kerala.
Open Access
Agricultural information source utilisation pattern of neo-literate farmers in rural areas
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Beena, Boniface; KAU; Padmanabhan, V B
With a view to identify the agricultural information source utilization pattern, availability and credibility of the sources by the neo- literate farmers, a study was conducted in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala State. It was also aimed at studying the information need of neo- literate farmers on important aspects of cultivation of certain crops. The study was conducted in five Krishibhavans of Neyyattinkara Agricultural Subdivision. Multi- stage random sampling was followed to select the neo- literate farmers as respondents. Data were collected from the respondents using separate interview schedules. Suitable statistical techniques like mean, frequency, percentage analysis, simple correlation and paired comparison technique were employed in the analysis of data. The study revealed that literacy centre was the most utilized source of agricultural information by the neo- literate farmers followed by radio, newspaper, television, Akshara Sangham, friends, neighbours, relatives, Jana vidhya kendram, Krishibhavan, fertilizer dealer, pesticide dealer, Block office, Agricultural college and Kerala Horticulture Development Programme in that order. The readily available source of agricultural information for the neo- literate farmers was identified as literacy centre followed by friends, radio, neighbours, relatives, akshara sangham, Krishi bhavan, newspaper, pesticide dealer, fertilizer dealer, television, Jana vidhya kendram, block office, Agricultural college and Kerala Horticulture Development Programme in that order. Of the eight sources selected to study their credibility, ‘literacy centre’ was ranked as the most credible source of agricultural information by the neo- literate farmers, followed by newspaper, television, radio, friends, krishi bhavan, fertilizer dealer and pesticide dealer in that order. The information most needed for neo-literate farmers for the crop banana was about the dose of fertilizers and for vegetables, it was the dose of plant protection chemicals. The age of 36% of neo- literate farmers was in the range of 31-40 years and 70% of the neo- literate farmers interviewed were female. About 38% of family members had undergone secondary education. More than half of the respondents were undertaking coolie, as their subsidiary occupation and 57% of them were earning below Rs.250 per month from subsidiary occupation. Sixty two per cent of respondents were cultivating on leased as well as on own land. Garden land was possessed by 57.3% of the neo- literate farmers. In radio, ‘vayalum veedum’ programme was consulted very often by 46% of the respondents and 42.3% consulted ‘Karshika meghala varthakal’ occasionally. In television ‘nattinpuram’ programme was consulted by 88% of the respondents ‘occasionally. In newspaper, ‘farm pages’ was consulted by 60% of the neo- literate farmers ‘occasionally’ and 67% consulted market price column occasionally. Articles were the most preferred item by 70% of the respondents. Eighty eight per cent ranked ‘Group management in coconut’ as the most preferred agricultural programme in krishibhavan. About 90% possessed high level of attitude towards scientific agricultural practices and ninety three per cent of the respondents possessed high level of attitude towards adult literacy. Knowledge level of 88% of the respondents was low. There was significant and positive relationship between attitude towards scientific agricultural practices and adult literacy.
Open Access
Farmer-labourer relationship in rice production systems -a case study
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1995) Ramanathan, S; KAU; Thyagarajan Nair, G
The study was undertaken with the objective of analyzing the farmer – labourer relationship in paddy production systems. The study was conducted in two districts of Kerala namely, Thiruvananthapurm and Alapuzha representing two distinctly different paddy production systems. Dyadic approach was used in the conduct of the study and altogether 150 farmer – labourer dyads were selected, 75 dyads each from the selected districts using random sampling. The farmer – labourer relationship was measured with the help of a scale developed for the study having 33 items. A pilot study was conducted for the selection of items to be included in the scale. The response for the items was obtained on a 5 point continuum with bipolar adjectives at the extreme ends as in the case of semantic differential technique. The data on farmer – labourer relationship and on 11 common variables, 7 farmer – related variables and 4 labourer – related variables were collected using a structured interview schedule. The relationship dimensions identified empirically were ‘facilitation’, ‘empathy’, ‘equity’, ‘tolerance’, ‘guidance’, ‘recognition’, ‘economic’, ‘social’ and ‘priority’. In general, a little more than half of the farmer – labourer dyads had high relationship. Like wise, in case of relationship dimensions such as facilitation, equity, tolerance, guidance, social and priority majority of the dyads came under high group. There was no significant difference between the overall relationship of the two study districts and among the three union membership categories. However, there was significant difference between the labourer categories with male labourers having significantly higher relationship than their female counterparts. The dimension – wise performance of farmer – labourer dyads on the whole was in the order of ‘tolerance’, ‘economic’, ‘empathy’, ‘recognition’, ‘social’, ‘guidance’, ‘priority’, ‘facilitation’ and ‘equity’. While there existed a vast dissimilarity in the relationship performance of dimensions of the two study districts, the two labourer categories and the three union membership categories were in agreement with regard to dimension – wise relationship performance. The socio – economic and psychological factors namely, management orientation, persuasiveness, gregariousness, education, ability to handle conflicts and labour use efficiency put together contributed significantly to the relationship of farmer – labourer dyads and explained 68 per cent of the variation in the relationship of farmer – respondents. In case of labourer – respondents, the variables participation in decision making with farmers, employment days and education were observed to be significantly contributing to the farmer – labourer relationship and explained 20 per cent of variation in the relationship.
Open Access
Evaluative perception of homestead farmers in relation to appropriateness of farming systema and cropping patterns
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1995) Babu, M N; KAU; Bhaskaran, C
The study was undertaken in 18 selected panchayats of central zone comprising of Palakkad, Thrissur and Ernakulam districts, with a view to identify the farming systems and cropping patterns adopted in homesteads. The evaluative perception of the farmers in relation to the appropriateness of farming systems and cropping patterns adopted in homesteads, their level of knowledge on scientific practices and extent of adoption of scientific and indigenous practices were also studied. The sample consisted of 180 homestead farmers selected at random. Data were collected using a well-structured interview schedule developed for the purpose. Suitable statistical techniques were employed in the analysis of data. The study revealed that the homesteads of central zone were of unique nature in the sense that they comprised of a dwelling unit, with/without extended garden of wet land rice, monocrop rubber or additional crop land which acted as satellite units of the homestead. The major farming system identified was homesteads with crop components, livestock and extended garden, of which coconut based homesteads were predominant. In many of the homesteads, a multi- storied cropping pattern was in vogue whereas that of wet land was rice- rice- fallow. A good majority of the farmers were in the medium category with reference to their evaluative perception, level of knowledge and extent of adoption. Among the independent variables, extension participation, information sources used, economic motivation and annual income were found important in predicting the variations in evaluative perception. Education, extension participation, information sources used and value orientation were significantly correlated with level of knowledge. Education, farm size, extension participation, annual income and economic motivation were significantly correlated with extent of adoption. Evaluative perception of farmers was positively and significantly correlated with their level of knowledge and extent of adoption. Nearly half of the respondents were found adopting indigenous practices. Prohibitive cost of inputs was perceived as most important constraint followed by high labour cost. The study pointed out to the urgent need of effective measures to control the escalating rate of conversion of crop land to monocrop rubber and for purposes other than agriculture, and also the important role of these homesteads in conserving the agro- ecosystem and maintaining the environmental equilibrium. It also emphasized the need for an appropriate strategy for development of the homesteads, preferably on watershed area basis, by co-ordinating all the agencies directly or indirectly involved to ensure realistic, meaningful and sustainable agro-ecosystem management.
Open Access
Multy-dimensional analysis of kuttimulla cultivation in Alapuzha district
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Nizamudeen, A; KAU; Prakash, R
The study ‘A Multi-Dimensional Analysis of ‘Kuttimulla’ Cultivation in Alapuzha District’ was carried out with the following objectives. 1. To study the socio-economic profile of the ‘Kuttimulla’ growers. 2. To study the extent of adoption of the cultivation practices. 3. To study the entrepreneurial behavior of the ‘Kuttimulla’ growers. 4. To study the motivational pattern of ‘Kuttimulla’ growers. 5. To identify the marketing channels prevailing in the area. 6. To study the constraints as perceived by the growers. 7. To develop an extension model to popularize ‘Kuttimulla’ cultivation In Kerala. The study was conducted in three purposively selected panchayats of Alapuzha district. A sample of 150 growers, ie. 50 selected randomly from each panchayat, formed the respondents of the study. Personal interview was conducted with the help of a well structured and pre-tested interview schedule. The data so collected was analysed with the help of suitable statistical techniques. The extent of adoption and the entrepreneurial behavior formed the dependent variables of the study. The selected profile characteristics of ‘Kuttimulla’ growers were taken as independent variables which included farming experience, socio-economic status, economic motivation, social participation, mass media exposure, information seeking behavior, cosmopoliteness, contact with extension agency, market perception, credit orientation, management orientation, attitude towards self employment and knowledge about ‘Kuttimulla’ cultivation. The motivational pattern influencing the adoption was also studied. Majority of the ‘Kuttimulla’ growers were found to have low farming experience, high socio-economic status, high economic motivation, low social participation, high mass media exposure, low information seeking behavior, high cosmopoliteness, high contact with extension agency, low market perception, high credit orientation, high management orientation, favorable attitudes towards self employment and high knowledge level. Majority of the ‘kuttimulla’ growers have high level of adoption and high entrepreneurial behavior. The most governing motive behind the adoption of ‘Kuttimulla’ was the economic security. Of the 13 variables studied, information seeking behavior, economic motivation and knowledge level were found to have a positive and significant correlation with the two dependent variables. Farming experience, cosmopoliteness, and credit orientation were found to have a positive and significant correlation only with adoption. All the other variable are having an non-significant correlation with the two dependent variables. The most important marketing channel of ‘Kuttimulla’ prevailing in the study area was Producer-Collection agent-Collection centre-Florishops-Consumer. The important constraints experienced by the ‘Kuttimulla’ growers were ‘difficulty in availing inputs’(production), ‘non availability of credit’(technological) and ‘inability of small growers to find market’(marketing). The major suggestions given by the respondents were ‘evolving high yielding varieties’(research), ‘establishing separate floricultural scheme’ (extension) and ‘installation of flower based industry’ (Marketing).
Open Access
Multi- dimensional analysis of self - employment among farm women
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Priya, Varma H; KAU; Kishore, Kumar N
The present study entitled “ A Multi-dimensional Analysis of Self-employment among Farm Women” was done with the following major objectives. 1. To analyse the attitude of farm women towards self-employment in agriculture and allied fields. 2. To study the personal socio-psychological factors that would influence the attitude of farm women towards self-employment in agriculture and also their entrepreneurial behaviour. 3. To analyse the preferences of farm women regarding the various self-employment avenues in agriculture. 4. To analyse the training needs of farm women in the various avenues. 5. To suggest a suitable training strategy for farm women. 6. To identify the constraints faced by farm women in doing self-employment in agriculture. The study was conducted in Neyyattinkara Taluk of Thiruvananthapuram District. Using a 2 stage randam sampling procedure, a total of 120 farm women were selected from four panchayats. Personal interview was conducted with the help of well structured and pre-tested interview schedule to collect data from the respondents. The collected data were analysed using suitable statistical procedures. The results thus obtained were as follows Majority of the respondents were found to be having high educational status, small size of holdings, low farming experience, low annual income, low social contact, high massmedia contact and high information source utilisation. A favourable attitude towards self –employment in agriculture was recorded for majority of respondents. Their entrepreneurial behaviour was also high. Other attributes which are necessary for entrepreneurship like self-confidence, innovativeness, economic motivation, management orientation, participation in implementing decisions and risk orientation were also high. Two thirds of the respondents were having low knowledge level. Age, farming experience and economic motivation showed negative correlation with attitude. Regarding preferences of farm women for the various self-employment avenues, vegetable production was the most preferred one followed by poultry and mushroom cultivation. Training needs were analysed for the major areas by computing the weighted mean training need score. In vegetable production, preparation of insecticide and fungicide solution had the high score. Majority of the farm women preferred peripatetic type of training, medium duration of training and the summer season for training. The most preferred venue was farm/residence of progressive farmers and the methodology chosen was demonstration. Lack of sufficient financial assistance was identified as the most important constraint by majority of the farm women.
Open Access
Indigenous practices in coconut farming in Thrissur district
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1996) Manju, S P; KAU; Kumari, Sushama N P
The study was carried out in Thrissur district of Kerala on the indigenous practices followed in coconut cultivation. The study aimed at identifying the indigenous practices, analyzing the knowledge about, extent of adoption and evaluation perception of these practices in coconut farming. The respondents consisted of 120 farmer respondents selected from three panchayats of the district, 30 extension personnal and 30 research personnal from the district. Sample selection was carried out using multistage sampling procedure. The dependent variables of the study were, the knowledge about and the extent of adoption of selected indigenous practices by farmers which were quantified using measurement devices developed for the study. The independent variables included the personnal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of farmers. In total, 83 indigenous practices were identified out of which, ‘collection of seednuts in summer’ and ‘bringing down the nuts with the help of ropes or coir baskets’ were the most known practices, while, the least known was ‘crushed onion + salt application in basins’. ‘Green leaf manuring’ was the practice adopted by most of the farmers whereas, ‘wick irrigation using clay pot’ was the least adopted. Overall evaluate perception was medium for all the three categories of respondents. ‘Education’ was the single variable which showed a significant positive correlation with knowledge whereas, ‘exposure to information sources’ was the only one variable exhibiting a significant positive relationship with the extent of adoption of indigenous practices.
Open Access
Comparative analysis of characteristics of women labourers engaged in rice farming in the social systems of Kollam and Kanyakumari districts
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Rajula Shanthy, T; KAU; Babu, B
The study aimed at analyzing the labour efficiency of women agricultural labourers. The study was conducted in Kollam district of Kerala and Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. A total of 300 women agricultural labourers were selected, 150 from each district using random sampling. The labour efficiency was measured with the help of a scale consisting of 32 items developed for the study. The data on the labour efficiency of women agricultural labourers and on the nineteen socio-personal and psychological characteristics of the women agricultural labourers were collected using a structured interview schedule. The dimensions of labour efficiency identified empirically were ’determination in work situation’, ‘inter – personal relationship’, ‘confidence’, ‘adjustability’, ‘team spirit’, ‘commitment’, ‘work environment’, competency, ‘socio-economic’ and ‘situational’. In general, the women agricultural labourers of both the districts were low in labour efficiency. The dimension – wise analysis of labour efficiency showed that majority of them belonged to high group under the dimensions ‘adjustability’ and ‘competency’ whereas majority had low efficiency with respect to the other dimensions. The factors influencing labour efficiency was in the order of period of employment, supervision by employer, wages and incentives provided, availability of alternative work, training of labourers, nature of tools and implements used, introduction of new machinery and progressive technology, increasing standard of living, adaptability to different tasks and physical condition of labourers. The variables namely caste, intrinsic motivation, independence, cosmopolite orientation, economic motivation, values related to agriculture, satisfaction, gregariousness, attitude towards scientific agriculture, innovativeness and alienation were found to be significantly contributing to labour efficiency. Total number of days of employment of women agricultural labourers in Kollam district was 207 (82 as agricultural and 125 as non-agricultural labour) and in Kanyakumari district it was 182 (78 as agricultural and 104 as non-agricultural labour). The peak season of employment was January – March in both the districts. There was relatively slack in employment during July – August and November –December in Kollam district and during August – September and December in Kanyakumari district. The average annual income from agricultural and non-agricultural labour was Rs. 3610.00 and Rs. 5447.50 in Kollam district, whereas it was Rs. 2695.00 and Rs. 3327.50 in Kanyakumari district respectively.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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