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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Impact of prominent KAU rice varities on the economic status of farmers in Kerala and Karnataka(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Dhruthiraj, B S; KAU; Chitra ParayilThe present study entitled “Impact of prominent KAU rice varieties on the economic status of farmers in Kerala and Karnataka” was conducted with the objectives of working out the costs and returns of prominent rice varieties, Jyothi and Uma, released from KAU, to find out the relationship between varietal adoption and net farm income, to identify specific reasons for adoption of KAU varieties and to analyze profitability of the KAU varieties in the states of Kerala and Karnataka by comparing with with local non-KAU varieties cultivated by farmers. The survey was conducted by collecting both primary data and secondary data. The area of study were major rice growing districts of Kerala (Palakkad and Alappuzha) and Karnataka (Mysore and Mandya). These districts were selected on the basis of prominence in adoption of rice varieties released from KAU. The primary data were collected by means of pre-tested interview schedule. The farmers in the study area were categorized into two groups on the basis of variety grown as: KAU variety adopting farmers and local popular non KAU variety adopting farmers. Forty farmers each cultivating at least one acre and adopting KAU variety and 40 farmers cultivating a local popular non-KAU variety were randomly selected and surveyed in each state making a total sample size of 160. The cost-return structure was worked out both for KAU and non KAU variety production using cost concepts. The average cost of cultivation (Cost C2) of KAU varieties was found to be lesser in Palakkad (Rs.73,213 per hectare) compared to Karnataka (Rs.75,731 per hectare ) and Alappuzha (Rs. 81,915 per hectare) and in case of local non KAU varieties, the average cost of cultivation was Rs.83,981 per hectare, Rs.83,634 per hectare and Rs.94,526 per hectare in Karnataka, Palakkad and Alappuzha respectively. The net income obtained by cultivating KAU varieties was found to be higher in Palakkad (Rs.48, 143 per hectare), followed by Alappuzha (26,356 per hectare) and Karnataka (Rs.11, 746 per hectare. The benefit – cost ratio (BCR) at the C2 and explicit cost level was found to be positive for KAU varieties in both the states. This implies that cultivation of KAU varieties was profitable for farmers in both the states. Garrett ranking technique was used to determine the reasons for adoption of KAU varieties. The possible reasons for adoption of KAU varieties in Karnataka were identified as high market price, high yield potential, high tillering capacity and resistance to pests and diseases while in Kerala, Farmers highlighted high yield potential, high market price, high tillering capacity, suitability, to the location, consumption purpose, resistance to pests and diseases and short duration of the variety as major reasons for adoption. Probit model was used to find out the factors affecting adoption of KAU rice varieties. In Kerala, Organizational membership and gross income of the farmers while in Karnataka, education, organizational membership, area and gross income of the farmers were identified as the major factors affecting the adoption of KAU varieties. The average cost of cultivation (cost C2) for seed production of KAU varieties was found to be higher in Karnataka (Rs. 88,176 per hectare), compared to Kerala (Rs.86, 355 per hectare). The average gross income was found to be higher in Kerala (Rs.1, 56,223 per hectare) compared to Karnataka (Rs.1, 17,513 per hectare). The net income at cost C2 was found to be positive for both the states whereas the amount was found to be higher in Kerala was compared to Karnataka. The marketing channels identified Kerala were Channel 1: Farmer- Supplyco - Rice millers - Public distribution system (PDS) – Consumers, Channel 2: Farmer - Rice millers – Retailers- Consumers and Channel 3: Farmer- Middlemen- Rice milers - Retailers - Consumers. The marketing channels identified in Karnataka were Channel 1: Farmer – Rice milers- Kerala marketing channels identified in Karnataka were Channel 1: Farmer - Rice millers- Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Local trader - Retailer -Consumer, Channel 2: Farmer - Local trader – Kerala rice market- Rice millers -Retailer - Consumer, Channel 3: Farmer - Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Rice millers/Local agents – Retailers - Consumers, Channel 4: Farmer - APMC -middlemen -Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Rice millers/Local agents - Retailers - Consumer. For both KAU and non KAU rice varieties, labour cost accounted for highest share in the cost A1 components in both the states; therefore, efforts have to be made for mechanizing paddy cultivation. Also initiatives have to be taken to attract the younger generation towards agriculture and more importantly paddy cultivation.ThesisItem Open Access Price behaviour of nendran banana in Kerala: an economic analysis(Department of Agriculture Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Shana, K K; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KIndia is the leading producer of banana in the world with an annual production of 30 million tons from 0.8 million hectares (2017-18). Nendran is one of the most important commercial varieties of banana grown in Kerala, occupying about 50 per cent of the total area under banana. Wide fluctuations have been observed in the price of Nendran, resulting in income variability of farmers. Hence the present study has been carried out with the objectives of analysing the price behaviour and volatility in prices of Nendran banana in Kerala. The study was mainly based on secondary data collected from the major markets of Kozhikode, Ernakulam, and Thiruvananthapuram. Trend analysis was carried out to understand the growth in area, production and productivity of banana both at national and state levels from 1980-81 to 2017-18. In India, the area, production and productivity of banana showed a significant growth. The area and production in Kerala showed an increasing trend but the productivity was found decreasing. Even with a growth in area of 4.83 per cent, the production increased only by 1.27 per cent due to the negative growth rate of -3.4 per cent in productivity per annum. The price behaviour of Nendran banana in major markets of Kerala viz., Kozhikode, Ernakulam, and Thiruvananthapuram for a duration of 16 years (20032018) was analyzed by decomposing the monthly price data into four components such as secular trend, seasonal variation, cyclical variation and irregular variation assuming a multiplicative model. Prices in all the three markets showed increasing trend. The seasonal variation of Nendran banana price in the markets showed a similar pattern, with peak price in the month of August because of increased demand during Onam season. Price cycles with length varying from six to seven years were noted in the market price. xix Pairwise and multiple co-integration analysis of Nendran banana prices in the above markets were carried out after confirming the stationarity of price series using Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test. The results showed that the markets were integrated, inferring the presence of price association among the markets. In order to provide additional evidence as to whether and in which direction price transmission occurred, Granger causality test was carried out and the existence of unidirectional causality from Kozhikode market to Ernakulam market and from Thiruvananthapuram market to Kozhikode and Ernakulam markets was proved. Correlation co-efficient between monthly market arrivals and prices of Nendran banana in Kozhikode, Ernakulam, and Thiruvananthapuram markets from 2013 to 2018 was computed to evaluate the pattern of association between them. In all the three markets, the prices and quantity of arrivals were found to be negatively correlated implying that prices decreased with increase in arrival of Nendran banana. The variability in Nendran banana arrivals and prices was studied computing the coefficient of variation and maximum variability in arrivals was found in Ernakulam market (42.52 per cent) and maximum variability in prices was found in Thiruvananthapuram market (24.41 per cent). Intra-annual volatility and inter-annual volatility of monthly prices of Nendran banana from 2003 to 2018 were estimated and the prices were found to be highly volatile. The intra-annual volatility showed no distinct pattern in all the three markets. The magnitude of inter-annual volatility was decreasing throughout and the divergence between the volatility of prices were found to be decreasing towards the latter end. Instability in annual prices worked out using suitable indices showed that prices in Thiruvananthapuram market were more volatile than other markets as it was influenced by prices in the markets of Tamil Nadu. xx Major constraints identified in the study area were wide fluctuations in prices, high labour and transportation costs, unavailability of institutional credit and lack of reliable information about prices. Price fluctuations and volatility creates uncertainty in the planting and marketing decisions of the farmer. Unavailability of reliable price information makes marketing difficult and farmers become more vulnerable to price risk. Therefore, suitable strategies for developing market intelligence for Nendran banana including price forecasting and provision to farmers, price stabilization through year round procurement and introduction of support price were suggested as policy interventions.ThesisItem Open Access Dynamics in prices and trade of Indian small cardmom and its implications on producers(Department of Agriculture Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Indhushree, A; KAU; Anil, KuruvilaIndian small cardamom is known worldwide for its quality and is exported to many countries around the world. Formerly, India enjoyed a monopoly in the production and export of small cardamom in the world. Since 1980s, the country lost its share in the international market to Guatemala due to comparatively higher price and increasing domestic demand for the commodity. The present study on “Dynamics in prices and trade of Indian small cardamom and its implications on producers” was undertaken with the objectives, to study the economics of small cardamom cultivation and marketing, analyse the price formation and transmission between Indian and international markets, study the supply response of cardamom, analyse India’s export performance and competitiveness and assess the implications of changes in price and trade at the farm level. The study was based on both primary and secondary data. In order to estimate the economics of cultivation and marketing of small cardamom, primary data were collected from 160 selected farm households in Idukki district of Kerala and from 52 market intermediaries in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The secondary data on area, production, prices and exports of small cardamom published by various institutions for the period from 1970-71 to 2017-18 were collected in order to study the price formation and transmission between the international and domestic markets, to find out the export performance and competitiveness of Indian small cardamom and supply response of cardamom to prices. The economics of small cardamom cultivation in Idukki district of Kerala was estimated using the concepts of establishment cost and maintenance cost. The total cost of cultivation and production of small cardamom in Idukki district were estimated as ₹4,79,040 per hectare and ₹375 per kg respectively, while the net returns earned by the farmers was ₹9,18,366 per hectare. The major marketing channels identified for small cardamom were, Channel I: Producer-Village trader-Auctioneer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer; Channel II: Producer-Auctioneer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer; Channel III: Producer-Village trader-Auctioneer-Exporter-Consumer and Channel IV: Producer-Auctioneer-Wholesaler-Upcountry wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer. Majority of the farmers (49 per cent) were selling their produce to the village traders, while 32 per ii cent of the farmers were selling to auctioneers. The marketing efficiency was found to be highest in channel II because of the low marketing cost and margin, and high producer’s share in consumer’s rupee. The marketing efficiency was found to be lowest in channel III. The co-movement between the cardamom prices in the Indian and international markets was confirmed in the post-WTO period, while there was no integration in the pre-WTO period. The transmission of price signals between Indian and international markets was also established for period I, period III and period IV. The price series of different grades of cardamom in the domestic market were found to be moving together in almost all the periods considered. Thus, the price of cardamom in one market was found to be having considerable influence on the price prevailing in the other market after the liberalisation of trade. The Error Correction Model (ECM) indicated the presence of short-run disequilibrium between the Indian and international prices, and between the prices of different grades of cardamom, which got corrected with varying speed of adjustment. Granger causality test confirmed that the price transmission was from the international market to the Indian market in the long-run. The elasticity of supply of small cardamom with respect to its own price lagged by two years was positive and significant in both the short-run (0.39) and long-run (0.96). The rate of growth in the export of small cardamom from India increased, while the instability in export declined in the post-WTO period as compared to the pre-WTO period. The export quantity contributed to about 80 per cent growth in the export value of small cardamom in the post-WTO period. Nearly 85 per cent of change in the variance of export value in the post-WTO period was due to the change in the variability of export unit value of small cardamom. Among the different periods considered for the study, period I recorded a higher growth rate of export and lower instability in terms of value and unit value, while period II witnessed the lowest and negative growth rate with high instability in the export of small cardamom. Geographic concentration of small cardamom export from India always remained high and it further increased in the post-WTO period. Over the years from period I to period V, there was a steady and gradual increase in the geographic concentration of export. There was a changing pattern in the stability of export markets for Indian small cardamom, and the probability of retention of major countries was iii declining over the years with the exception of Saudi Arabia. It was found that Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Japan and UAE were the stable markets in both pre-WTO and post-WTO periods. Even though India gained considerable market share of new markets viz., UK, Iran and Bangladesh, it lost some of the traditional export markets viz., Kuwait, UAE and Qatar. The export demand for Indian small cardamom was determined by the GDP per capita in the importing countries in both pre-WTO and post-WTO periods, while the export supply was influenced by the ratio of export price to domestic price and the domestic production. The indices of export competitiveness viz., the Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) and Effective Protection Coefficient (EPC) values were greater than one (1.33) indicating lower export competitiveness of Indian small cardamom. Domestic Resource Cost Ratio (DRCR) was less than one (0.22) which indicated India’s comparative advantage in the production of small cardamom. Variance in producer prices influences the welfare of the farmers by affecting their income. The variance in exchange rate was found to be the major source of variation in producer prices in the pre-WTO period and period II, while the variance in export unit value was the major determinant in the post-WTO period, period I and period III. The challenges in small cardamom cultivation need to be addressed by introducing varieties that are both pest resistant and high yielding, formulating effective organic inputs and providing replanting subsidy at a reasonable rate to the farmers. Regarding the price and trade of cardamom, crop specific price stabilization mechanism is needed to tackle the excessive volatility in cardamom prices. More transparency is required in the e-auction system to reduce re-pooling by traders and ensure faster payment to the farmers. In order to promote export and improve India’s competitiveness, farmers should be encouraged to follow Good Agricultural Practises (GAP) that will help to reduce the input usage, which will in turn improve the quality of the commodity and reduce the cost of production. Effective ban on toxic chemicals at the national level is necessary to keep the residual toxic content in small cardamom within the permissible limits. Branding of Indian small cardamom which is of superior quality could also help in promotion of the commodity in the international market.ThesisItem Open Access Water crisis in Coastal area: Domestic adaptation strategies and impact on agriculture sector(Department of Agriculture Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Swathy Sugathan, P; KAU; Indira Devi, PDespite rich endowments of water resources, availability of water in Kerala is dwindling and inadequate for the growing population. Several regions in the state experience seasonal drought like condition, every year. The coastal areas of Kerala become most vulnerable region with respect to water scarcity due to quantitative and qualitative aspects. The study on ‘Water crisis in coastal areas: domestic adaptation strategies and impact on agriculture sector’ was undertaken in this background in coastal areas of Thrissur district in Kerala. The main objectives of the study were to analyse the dimensions of water scarcity and the level of understanding of the same among coastal communities and to identify the strategies to address the issue. Further, economic burden on households were estimated and the impact of scarcity on agriculture sector was also analysed. The study was conducted in Chavakkad, Thalikulam, Mathilakam, and Kodungallur regions of Thrissur district by a two stage random sampling of 120 respondents. The study was based on both primary and secondary data and the data was analysed using statistical tools like descriptive analysis, regression analysis, scaling technique and Shannon-Wiener diversity index. The major water sources in the study area were own sources such as wells, ponds, and public sources like house connections and public taps. Wells are the major source for domestic sector and ponds serve the irrigation purpose. The volume of water in the wells, which was a major water source in the region, declined by an average of 62 per cent by summer season. Thus, the dependence on dug wells for household consumption reduced to 27 per cent, compared to monsoon season (77 per cent). This was also due to the water quality problems, in certain cases. The water quality issues in the area was reflected as colour change, odour, salinity and hardness. Aquatic weeds was reported as a major threat in the coastal belt. Correspondingly, the average household water consumption level also declined. The volume of water in the well and family size influenced the household consumption. Coconut based cropping system was prevalent in the study area with arecanut and banana as major intercrops. Ponds were the major source of irrigation water. Most of the farms were irrigated (40 per cent) at an interval of three days. In regions of severe water scarcity, an irrigation schedule of once in ten days (15 per cent of the farms) was followed. The decision to irrigate the farm was significantly influenced by number of water sources and agricultural income. The irrigation investment amounted to `33,781 per ha per year which constituted 45 per cent of cost of cultivation while accommodating the fixed cost component. Most of the respondents reported a gradual reduction in agricultural yield over the years and 60 per cent respondents attribute it to water scarcity. Digging new ponds, installation of efficient pumpsets, roof water harvesting and filtering of water for domestic purpose were the adaptation strategies opted by the farmers to address the water scarcity. Farming experience was proved to be the most influential factor that determined the adaptation behaviour. The study brings out results that suggest policy interventions for implementing rain water recharge efforts and scientific water quality monitoring system in Kodungallur and Mathilakam regions where water quality problems were more severe. Simultaneously water resource conservation strategies, as well as models developed by KAU for improving crop diversity are to be popularised.ThesisItem Open Access Dynamics and competitiveness of agricultural trade polices on coconut economy of Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Thasnimol, F; KAU; Prema, ACoconut is a crop of economic importance in many Asian and Pacific countries. India is the largest producer of coconut in the world contributing 23798.23 million nuts from an area of 2.09 million ha (CDB, 2018). The economic reforms of the 1990s and the subsequent trade liberalization policies have brought challenges and prospects to Indian agriculture including the coconut industry. In this context, the present study was undertaken with the objectives to trace and assess the impact of trade policies in edible oil on coconut economy of Kerala, to analyse the price transmission in the markets, to estimate the efficiency of selected coconut markets and finally to suggest appropriate policy measures for improving the performance of coconut trade. Both primary and secondary data were used for examining the specific objectives of the study. The primary data were collected using well-structured and pretested schedules through a survey of 90 farmers, 45 market intermediaries and 15 exporters in the selected districts of Kerala. Secondary data was mainly collected from authentic sources like CDB, EXIM data bank, DGCI&S, DGFT and FAO statistics. Though trade liberalization adversely affected the coconut farmers during the initial phase of liberalization, it subsequently increased the opportunities of the Indian coconut sector to compete in the world market. The export growth rate of coconut products has increased during the study period (1980-81 to 2016-17) while instability index, a measure of export stability was found to have decreased. The high growth rates of coconut products together with low instability indices in the export revealed the prospects for Indian coconut sector in the global market. Hence stream lining the production through Good Agricultural Practices to fulfill the export market requirements with regard to quality and safety would boost the trade. The comparative advantage in coconut trade analysed using the Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) indicated that coconut oil and desiccated coconut did not possess any comparative advantage in global trade, while coconut (fresh and dried) and copra have comparative advantage. It was obvious from the result that rather than focusing on the export of coconut oil and desiccated coconut, India must give much effort to increase our export share of coconut, copra and other value-added coconut products to augment the foreign earnings. The trade policies concerning edible oils at the national level were found to have an impact on the coconut oil prices in Kerala too. Exponential growth rates were computed to compare the growth of edible oil imports and coconut oil prices in Kerala. The significant improvement in the growth rates of edible oil import and decline in the growth rates of coconut oil price confirmed that trade liberalisation and further Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) facilitated the huge import of edible oil from other countries which unfavorably affected the domestic coconut economy. The result of the Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) unveiled that coconut oil production in Kerala was competitive at the given level of technologies, prices of inputs and outputs and current policy stipulations. However, social profitability, a measure of efficiency or comparative advantage was observed to be negative. The result depicted that coconut oil production in Kerala lacks comparative advantage in production and the state was not able to use the available resources efficiently. The efficiency of selected coconut markets studied using Shepherd’s index indicated that the presence of more number of marketing intermediaries and high marketing cost and margin have reduced the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee. Besides, high wage rates, shortage of skilled labour, lack of processing technologies, adverse climatic conditions, etc., obstruct the farmers in performing even the primary level processing and thereby it reduces the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee. The cointegration analysis using Johansen Cointegration method revealed that the liberalisation policies and further free trade agreements have resulted in the transmission of price signals between domestic and international edible oil markets and it led to the integration of these markets during the post-liberalisation period. The result of Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) also depicted that changes in the international prices of edible oils would cause changes in price in the domestic coconut oil market in the long-run. High wage rate, labour shortage and incidence of pest and diseases were the major production constraints faced by the farmers. Inclusion of agricultural operations also under MGNREGA has been suggested by farmers as an option for bringing down the cost of cultivation. Shortage of skilled labours can be lessened through the adoption of programmes like Friends of Coconut Tree (FoCT). The problems related to pest and disease attacks can be addressed by developing resistant and hybrid varieties and better plant protection measures. Price fluctuation, high transportation cost, inadequate storage and processing facilities were the major marketing constraints faced by the farmers. Long-term policies for the price stabilization of coconut and other coconut products are inevitable to reduce the price fluctuation. The government should continue the procurement operation through Krishi Bhavans as it is found to be beneficial for the farmers. Shortage of raw nuts, lack of exclusive market for coconut and high domestic price were the major constraints reported by the domestic traders and upcountry traders. The recent surge in the domestic price could be attributed mainly to the short supply coupled with high domestic and industrial demand. Shortage of raw nut due to lower production, productivity and pests and diseases needs to be addressed seriously. In the era of trade liberalisation and FTAs, the interests of farmers also need to be safeguarded while concentrating on trade opportunities. Given the present trade scenario, the coconut sector in Kerala needs strong support from the government to revive and retrieve its premier role performed in the past.ThesisItem Open Access Groundwater irrigation: management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Seenath Peedikakandi; KAU; Indira Devi, PGroundwater is the major source of domestic use and irrigation in Kerala, accounting for 39 per cent of net irrigated area. Irrigated agriculture in the state shows continuous increase over years. At the same time Kerala is reported as third among the states with highest depletion of groundwater. This situation poses challenges in agricultural production. The study ‘Groundwater irrigation: Management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions’ was undertaken, in this background. The objectives of the study were to analyse the extent of decline in groundwater resources and farmers’ understanding of the same, to analyse the extraction practices, management and economic efficiency of groundwater irrigation and coping (short term) and adaptation (long term) strategies towards management of groundwater decline and the economic cost of adaptation strategies. The study was conducted in Palakkad district of Kerala. Based on the stage of ground water development, three Block Panchayats viz., Chittur (over exploited), Malampuzha (critical) and Pattambi (semi-critical) were selected for the study. 50 Open Well (OW) irrigated and 50 Bore Well (BW) irrigated farms from each BP were randomly selected from the Grama Panchayats (GPs) where observational wells of the GWD (Ground Water Department- Kerala) are situated. Primary data was collected from the sample farms through field visits using pre-tested structured interview schedule and through direct observation. PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) was also conducted in each BP to draw the time line of changes in ground water status and social perceptions. Secondary data on monthly water levels of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (GMWs) maintained by GWD (Palakkad),rainfall data and published reports were used for the study. Statistical tools like descriptive analysis, regression and Stochastic Frontier Function were employed for analysis of the data. In most of the GMWs in the study area, the Water Level from Ground (WLG) has been declining over the years. The trend was more predominant during early summer (Dec.–Jan.) in Chittur and Malampuzha and in late summer in Pattambi BP. Regression analysis showed that WLG was significantly influenced by one year lagged rainfall in Chittur and current year rainfall in Malampuzha and Pattambi. The average well density was 205/km2 with highest in Pattambi. Density of defunct wells was highest (45/km2) and the average functional age of bore wells was lowest (7 years) in Chittur. The depth of well was highest in Chittur where bore well depth (136 mbgl- meters below ground level) was double than that of Pattambi. Coconut based cropping system was prevalent in most of the farms except in Malampuzha where paddy was the major crop. Flood, basin and sprinkler irrigations were found to be more common in Malampuzha and Pattambi BPs, while drip irrigation was prevalent in Chittur. Cost of irrigation in Chittur was about Rs. 29,000/ha/year which accounted for 37 per cent of cost of cultivation. Annual net return per ha. of farm was lowest (Rs. 17,640/-) in Chittur due to low cropping intensity. Stochastic Frontier Analysis indicated that mean economic efficiency was high (99.9%) in Chittur as most of the farms were functioning along the cost frontier. The variability among the farms in Chittur was low. Respondents opined that groundwater is declining over the years irrespective of the region. It has been so, for more than a decade in Chittur affecting socio-economic well-being of farmers. They attributed intensive extraction through bore wells and low rainfall as the major reasons for the decline. Farm level adaptations to water scarcity are classified under ‘supply management’ (methods that facilitated increase in quantity of water available for irrigation) and ‘demand management’ (methods that tried to use the water effectively through minimizing the use) strategies. The supply management strategies were mainly exploitative in nature which included digging new bore well (52-58%), improved draft technology with compressor pumps (58%), taking pits for water conservation (7%), coconut husk burial (12%), coconut leaf mulching (18%) and dependence on water markets (8%). Digging new bore well was the most common supply management strategy in Chittur which is highly capital intensive. The average cost amounted to Rs. 8,520/ha/year. Intensive extraction was done by excessive use of subsidized electricity. Adoption of drip irrigation (60%) was the most widely practiced demand management strategy which cost about Rs. 22,000/ha/year. Cropping pattern change from paddy and sugarcane to coconut was also observed. About 18 per cent of the land area in Chittur was kept fallow due to water scarcity. The study brings out results that suggest policy interventions in regulating bore well digging and revisiting the power subsidy system. In Chittur area, where the rainfall is scanty, extension of the Right Bank Canal of the Chittur River irrigation project is the most feasible solution. Taking up on-farm research trials in the area to suggest efficient farming systems and practices may also be done. Simultaneously water resource conservation strategies are to be popularized through awareness creation, capacity building programmes and subsidy support.ThesisItem Open Access Performance analysis of agro-processing self-help groups in Thrissur district(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2007) Lina, Joy; KAU; Prema, AThe present study on the "Performance analysis of agro-processing Self Help Groups in Thrissur district” was conducted to study the functioning of Self help Groups (SHGs), to identify the factors determining effective functioning and to study the constraints faced by the SHGs and provide suggestions for effective functioning. The study was taken up among Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna (SGSY) SHGs in Thrissur district. Five blocks having maximum percentage of agro-processing SHGs were selected. The activities undertaken by the agro-processing SHGs were classified under four groups i.e. fish processing, copra processing, powder making and ready to eat items making Group characteristics as the indicators of performance studied were group cohesion, group decision-making, group leadership, team spirit and maintenance of records. Copra processing unit obtained the highest rank in group characteristics. Profile characteristics studied were information seeking behaviour, innovativeness, risk orientation, economic motivation, management orientation, attitude towards self employment, knowledge about processing and market perception Powder making units were having the highest rank in profile characters Non performing groups showed the lowest score in both the group characteristics and in the profile characteristics Correlation analysis between group and profile characteristics revealed that management orientation was the major socio-economic variable affecting the group performance. Marketing channel for all the categories showed the lack of adequate forward and backward linkages. All the categories marketed their products within the district only. Packaging and traveling expense were the main items of the marketing cost Lack of common retail outlet for SHG products was the major constraint faced by SHGs in their marketing Cost of material input and labour cost were the main items in working capital of each category The copra processing units were having highest BC ratio (2.26) BC ratio of all the performing units were more than unity which indicated that all the units studied were running in profit The units were receiving a subsidy of 50 percent loan taken and they also received Rs10000 as revolving fund. All the units studied were having more than Rs 30,000 as thrift. The major constraints faced by the SHGs were the lack of concession regarding lending rate and lack of any aid from panchayat.ThesisItem Open Access Investment pattern in rural households of Ollukkara Block Panchayath in Thrissur District(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2002) Pratheesh, V.S.; KAU; Thomas, E.K.Agriculture which is the back bone of Indian economy, is now heading towards a radical transformation. When the green revolution technology was introduced in the mid sixties, great expectations were raised as to the beneficial effects it could induce into every class of farmers and other sectors of the populations by increasing food production, employment opportunities and income levels. But its latter day performances have belied these expectations and it seemed that only those who have necessary absorptive capacity or infrastructure are only benefited. So for the betterment of agriculture there should be more and more investment both in the public and private sector. Under these circumstances the present study entitled "Investment Pattern in rural households of Ollukkara block panchayath in Thrissur district" is of high relevance and was conducted with the following objectives. 1. To study the different sources of income of rural people 2. To examine the savings and expenditure pattern 3. To analyze the nature of investment 4. To identify the constraints associated with investment in rural areas. The study was conducted in the sample selected at random from 50 numbers of Agricultural labourers, farmers and service sector people from the five wards selected from the total 74 wards in the Ollukkara block panchayath of Thrissur district. The data for the agricultural year 2001-2002 were collected using a well structured interview schedule. The study revealed that the mainsource of farm income in farmers and service sector people was crops where as for labourers it was livestock. On an average 81. 9 5 per cent of the total farm income was directed from the crops and only 18,95 was from livestock. Category wise analysis showed that net income and benefit cost ratio were much higher for labourer households and lowest for service sector people. 141 At the aggregate level, consumption expenditure accounted for 78.91 per cent, and the rest 21.09 per cent was for farm expenditure. Of the total, 78.09 per cent of farm expenditure was incurred for crops and only 21.91 per cent was made for livestock. The Category wise analysis showed that per household savings was highest for the service sector people followed by farmers and labourers. With respect to the gross farm investment, purchase of livestock was the most important item of investment followed by investment on land improvement, purchase of irrigation appliances, construction and repair of farm buildings and digging and repair of wells. The average rate of farm investment was only 1.53 per cent while the non farm investment was at the rate of 5.41 per cent. Lack of employment, High cost of living, and high loan out standing were reported as the most important constraint for investment along with constraints like non availability of labour, lack of irrigation etc.ThesisItem Open Access Integrated pest management in rice production: resource use efficiency and relative economics(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2005) Saijyothi, D; KAU; Indira Devi, PThe present study entitled Integrated Pest Management in rice production: resource use efficiency and relative economics, was conducted in Kuttanad region of Kerala, India with the specific objectives of evaluating the economics of IPM technology over the traditional practice and to assess the resource use efficiency. The study pertaining to the summer crop in the area (November 2004 to February 2005) was undertaken during March to July 2005 A sample of 70 farmers each from IPM and Non-IPM category were selected by conducting a preliminary survey to categorise the farmers under each group. The production details of paddy were gathered from both the groups using a pretested structured questionnaire by personal interview method. The management under IPM programme starts from the very beginning of the crop calendar, starting with the varietal selection, its source, seed rate and method of planting. Though both types of farms were sowing only recommended varieties, seed rate was much above the recommended level in the case of non IPM group and they primarily relied on farm saved seeds. It was the reverse in the case of IPM farms. The level of application of fertilizers and soil ameliorants was lower in the case of IPM farms. Among the various inputs in crop production, labour was the most important single item of expenditure in paddy production. The total labour use in IPM farms was found to be 75 man-days per hectare i.e., 5.63 per cent higher than that of Non-IPM farms (71 man days per hectare). This is primarily due to the additional labour required in IPM farms for weeding (due to lesser amount of weedicide use), land preparation (additional ploughing), harvesting (higher yield) and IPM measures. Thus the total expenditure on seeds and sowing, fertilizer application and plant protection charges were 67.15 per cent higher in the Non-IPM group. Contrary to this, the expenditure on land preparation, weeding and harvesting operations together, were 11.93 per cent higher in IPM group. Total cost of cultivation was estimated as 5.07 per cent higher in Non-IPM group (Rs31536/ha) compared to IPM group (Rs 29841/ha) Apart from the cost saving, relatively higher yield (45.23 quintals per hectare) was also there in IPM farms compared to the other group.(44.46 quintals per hectare). The partial budgeting analysis have revealed that the cost saving coupled with higher yield realization in IPM farms has resulted in an additional net private gain in income to the tune of Rs 2824 per hectare Benefit cost ratio at Cost A1 was estimated as 1.85 (Non-IPM) and it was 2.06 for IPM farms inferring rice cultivation under IPM, as more beneficial than chemical based cultivation. At cost C3 level, the non IPM groups were more prone to risk as the BC Ratio was very close to unity Cobb-Douglas production function was fitted to assess the efficiency of resource use in paddy cultivation for both IPM and Non-IPM farms. It could be concluded that IPM farms were economically more efficient in resource utilization than the Non-IPM counter parts. Though most of the farmers were aware of the potential hazards of excessive chemical use in agriculture, and got exposed to adequate training, the spread of the technology is constrained by factors like, the perception of a yield loss, difficulties in water management and labour problems. But those who have adopted the technology was found to be aware of the short-term nature of yield reduction and cost saving aspects of the technology. The policy suggestions are made based on the findings and future line of work is also suggested.
