Loading...
Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
Browse
30 results
Search Results
ThesisItem Open Access Impact of prominent KAU rice varities on the economic status of farmers in Kerala and Karnataka(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Dhruthiraj, B S; KAU; Chitra ParayilThe present study entitled “Impact of prominent KAU rice varieties on the economic status of farmers in Kerala and Karnataka” was conducted with the objectives of working out the costs and returns of prominent rice varieties, Jyothi and Uma, released from KAU, to find out the relationship between varietal adoption and net farm income, to identify specific reasons for adoption of KAU varieties and to analyze profitability of the KAU varieties in the states of Kerala and Karnataka by comparing with with local non-KAU varieties cultivated by farmers. The survey was conducted by collecting both primary data and secondary data. The area of study were major rice growing districts of Kerala (Palakkad and Alappuzha) and Karnataka (Mysore and Mandya). These districts were selected on the basis of prominence in adoption of rice varieties released from KAU. The primary data were collected by means of pre-tested interview schedule. The farmers in the study area were categorized into two groups on the basis of variety grown as: KAU variety adopting farmers and local popular non KAU variety adopting farmers. Forty farmers each cultivating at least one acre and adopting KAU variety and 40 farmers cultivating a local popular non-KAU variety were randomly selected and surveyed in each state making a total sample size of 160. The cost-return structure was worked out both for KAU and non KAU variety production using cost concepts. The average cost of cultivation (Cost C2) of KAU varieties was found to be lesser in Palakkad (Rs.73,213 per hectare) compared to Karnataka (Rs.75,731 per hectare ) and Alappuzha (Rs. 81,915 per hectare) and in case of local non KAU varieties, the average cost of cultivation was Rs.83,981 per hectare, Rs.83,634 per hectare and Rs.94,526 per hectare in Karnataka, Palakkad and Alappuzha respectively. The net income obtained by cultivating KAU varieties was found to be higher in Palakkad (Rs.48, 143 per hectare), followed by Alappuzha (26,356 per hectare) and Karnataka (Rs.11, 746 per hectare. The benefit – cost ratio (BCR) at the C2 and explicit cost level was found to be positive for KAU varieties in both the states. This implies that cultivation of KAU varieties was profitable for farmers in both the states. Garrett ranking technique was used to determine the reasons for adoption of KAU varieties. The possible reasons for adoption of KAU varieties in Karnataka were identified as high market price, high yield potential, high tillering capacity and resistance to pests and diseases while in Kerala, Farmers highlighted high yield potential, high market price, high tillering capacity, suitability, to the location, consumption purpose, resistance to pests and diseases and short duration of the variety as major reasons for adoption. Probit model was used to find out the factors affecting adoption of KAU rice varieties. In Kerala, Organizational membership and gross income of the farmers while in Karnataka, education, organizational membership, area and gross income of the farmers were identified as the major factors affecting the adoption of KAU varieties. The average cost of cultivation (cost C2) for seed production of KAU varieties was found to be higher in Karnataka (Rs. 88,176 per hectare), compared to Kerala (Rs.86, 355 per hectare). The average gross income was found to be higher in Kerala (Rs.1, 56,223 per hectare) compared to Karnataka (Rs.1, 17,513 per hectare). The net income at cost C2 was found to be positive for both the states whereas the amount was found to be higher in Kerala was compared to Karnataka. The marketing channels identified Kerala were Channel 1: Farmer- Supplyco - Rice millers - Public distribution system (PDS) – Consumers, Channel 2: Farmer - Rice millers – Retailers- Consumers and Channel 3: Farmer- Middlemen- Rice milers - Retailers - Consumers. The marketing channels identified in Karnataka were Channel 1: Farmer – Rice milers- Kerala marketing channels identified in Karnataka were Channel 1: Farmer - Rice millers- Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Local trader - Retailer -Consumer, Channel 2: Farmer - Local trader – Kerala rice market- Rice millers -Retailer - Consumer, Channel 3: Farmer - Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Rice millers/Local agents – Retailers - Consumers, Channel 4: Farmer - APMC -middlemen -Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Rice millers/Local agents - Retailers - Consumer. For both KAU and non KAU rice varieties, labour cost accounted for highest share in the cost A1 components in both the states; therefore, efforts have to be made for mechanizing paddy cultivation. Also initiatives have to be taken to attract the younger generation towards agriculture and more importantly paddy cultivation.ThesisItem Open Access Groundwater irrigation: management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Seenath Peedikakandi; KAU; Indira Devi, PGroundwater is the major source of domestic use and irrigation in Kerala, accounting for 39 per cent of net irrigated area. Irrigated agriculture in the state shows continuous increase over years. At the same time Kerala is reported as third among the states with highest depletion of groundwater. This situation poses challenges in agricultural production. The study ‘Groundwater irrigation: Management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions’ was undertaken, in this background. The objectives of the study were to analyse the extent of decline in groundwater resources and farmers’ understanding of the same, to analyse the extraction practices, management and economic efficiency of groundwater irrigation and coping (short term) and adaptation (long term) strategies towards management of groundwater decline and the economic cost of adaptation strategies. The study was conducted in Palakkad district of Kerala. Based on the stage of ground water development, three Block Panchayats viz., Chittur (over exploited), Malampuzha (critical) and Pattambi (semi-critical) were selected for the study. 50 Open Well (OW) irrigated and 50 Bore Well (BW) irrigated farms from each BP were randomly selected from the Grama Panchayats (GPs) where observational wells of the GWD (Ground Water Department- Kerala) are situated. Primary data was collected from the sample farms through field visits using pre-tested structured interview schedule and through direct observation. PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) was also conducted in each BP to draw the time line of changes in ground water status and social perceptions. Secondary data on monthly water levels of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (GMWs) maintained by GWD (Palakkad),rainfall data and published reports were used for the study. Statistical tools like descriptive analysis, regression and Stochastic Frontier Function were employed for analysis of the data. In most of the GMWs in the study area, the Water Level from Ground (WLG) has been declining over the years. The trend was more predominant during early summer (Dec.–Jan.) in Chittur and Malampuzha and in late summer in Pattambi BP. Regression analysis showed that WLG was significantly influenced by one year lagged rainfall in Chittur and current year rainfall in Malampuzha and Pattambi. The average well density was 205/km2 with highest in Pattambi. Density of defunct wells was highest (45/km2) and the average functional age of bore wells was lowest (7 years) in Chittur. The depth of well was highest in Chittur where bore well depth (136 mbgl- meters below ground level) was double than that of Pattambi. Coconut based cropping system was prevalent in most of the farms except in Malampuzha where paddy was the major crop. Flood, basin and sprinkler irrigations were found to be more common in Malampuzha and Pattambi BPs, while drip irrigation was prevalent in Chittur. Cost of irrigation in Chittur was about Rs. 29,000/ha/year which accounted for 37 per cent of cost of cultivation. Annual net return per ha. of farm was lowest (Rs. 17,640/-) in Chittur due to low cropping intensity. Stochastic Frontier Analysis indicated that mean economic efficiency was high (99.9%) in Chittur as most of the farms were functioning along the cost frontier. The variability among the farms in Chittur was low. Respondents opined that groundwater is declining over the years irrespective of the region. It has been so, for more than a decade in Chittur affecting socio-economic well-being of farmers. They attributed intensive extraction through bore wells and low rainfall as the major reasons for the decline. Farm level adaptations to water scarcity are classified under ‘supply management’ (methods that facilitated increase in quantity of water available for irrigation) and ‘demand management’ (methods that tried to use the water effectively through minimizing the use) strategies. The supply management strategies were mainly exploitative in nature which included digging new bore well (52-58%), improved draft technology with compressor pumps (58%), taking pits for water conservation (7%), coconut husk burial (12%), coconut leaf mulching (18%) and dependence on water markets (8%). Digging new bore well was the most common supply management strategy in Chittur which is highly capital intensive. The average cost amounted to Rs. 8,520/ha/year. Intensive extraction was done by excessive use of subsidized electricity. Adoption of drip irrigation (60%) was the most widely practiced demand management strategy which cost about Rs. 22,000/ha/year. Cropping pattern change from paddy and sugarcane to coconut was also observed. About 18 per cent of the land area in Chittur was kept fallow due to water scarcity. The study brings out results that suggest policy interventions in regulating bore well digging and revisiting the power subsidy system. In Chittur area, where the rainfall is scanty, extension of the Right Bank Canal of the Chittur River irrigation project is the most feasible solution. Taking up on-farm research trials in the area to suggest efficient farming systems and practices may also be done. Simultaneously water resource conservation strategies are to be popularized through awareness creation, capacity building programmes and subsidy support.ThesisItem Open Access Economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Hema, M; KAU; Indira Devi, P.Mangroves are invaluable treasure o f our biodiversity with immense ecological and economic significance. But mangroves wealth of the world is depleting at an annual rate of -0. 34 per cent. Mangroves in Kerala, constitute 0.3 per cent o f that in India, is reported to be high in species diversity. The available reports indicate the depleting status o f the ecosystem in Kerala too. The socio-economic and ecological significance o f this ecosystem is to be studied in detail for assisting policy decisions when confronted with the conservation-development debate. This study was undertaken in this background. The study identified the stakeholders o f mangrove ecosystems o f Kerala and quantified the level o f dependence o f local communities for their livelihood and estimated the aggregate demand for products and services. Further, it identified and quantified the relative influence o f socioeconomic, institutional, climatic and anthropogenic forces on the destruction of mangroves and finally assessed the Total Economic Value (TEV) o f mangrove system and suggested policy prescriptions for the conservation and management of mangroves in Kerala. The study was conducted in the mangrove areas o f Emakulam and Kannur districts of Kerala. These two districts accounted for nearly 65 per cent o f the mangroves o f the state. The study was based on primary and secondary data. The primary data was gathered from 480 respondents belonging to four identified stakeholder groups (residents, fishermen, paddy farmers and general public), selected through simple random sampling method. Data was collected through personal interview using structured pretested interview schedule along with direct observation. The major tools of data analysis were Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Choice experiment. The data collection was conducted during June 2012 to January 2013. I Four stakeholder groups o f the mangrove ecosystem in the study area were residents living close to mangroves (<1 km from mangroves), fishermen (inland fishermen and women, engaged in shell mining and clam collection, shrimp farmers), paddy farmers (Pokkali and Kaippad) and general public (resides away from the mangroves). The residents were depending on the mangroves for extraction o f fuel wood, fodder and poles. On an average the level o f extraction was 307 kg o f fuel wood, 1024 kg of fodder and 14(no.) o f poles per year valued at X 4628/household. This amounted to 3 per cent o f their annual household income. The major species o f fish catch by the fishermen were Etroplus, shrimp, crab and Tilapia which was quantified at 1553 kg/ year valued at X 1,41,045. Shell mining which was found to be a major economic activity in Kannur region could generate an income of X 30,000/annum through the extraction and sale o f 7500 kg o f shells. Clam collected was quantified at 225 kg/year valued at X 5625. Thus, the average gross income from these activities was estimated at X 1,77,164 per year which was the main source o f income for the household. About 8 per cent of the fishermen were involved in shrimp farming and were mainly from Kannur district. The size o f the farm varied from 0.4 to 2 ha. The input cost/ha was X 2.8 lakhs which includes cost o f seed, feed, lime and water management. Labour cost was estimated at X 77,000. Hence total cost and returns o f shrimp farming/ha was X 3.27 and 4.75 lakhs respectively with net income o f ? 1.48 lakhs. Pokkali and Kaippad agricultural systems are proved to be closely interconnected with the:.mangrove ecosystem and the per hectare gross returns was X 60,007 and X 40,935 respectively. This amounted to average 30 per cent o f their household income. The respondents’ perception on the pattern of change and the major factors that effected the change in mangrove ecosystem was studied based on their responses. 46 per cent o f the respondents were o f the opinion that the mangrove ecosystem has declined over years and facing threat. The major factors responsible for the same were reported as anthropogenic, climatic forces and status o f property rights. The 11 developmental interventions like LNG Petronet Terminal, Puthuvypeen and ICTT Vallarpadam has resulted in large scale conversion o f mangrove areas. The contradictory forces o f development and conservation led to destruction of mangrove ecosystem. One fifth respondents opined that climatic factors were responsible for the decline. Nearly 85 per cent of the mangroves in the state were reported to be under private ownership and rest under public. The property right status along with economic status influences the rate o f depletion. The legal interventions and community and institutional efforts also influence the status of mangroves, most often positively. The economic valuation of ecological benefits o f mangroves was attempted employing the Contingent Valuation Method. The respondents expressed their willingness to contribute towards conservation both in cash and kind (cash payment and manual participation as labour and as volunteer in awareness programmes) and in combination. The average WTP expressed by the respondents was f 2308/annum the range being ? 50-28,870. The TEV of the mangrove ecosystem of the state was thus ? 1,17,947 million, which was 0.14 per cent ofthe GSDP (2011-12). A socially preferred management plan was identified among a set of alternatives, employing the choice experiment method. Among the management options given, the stakeholders preferred community management (41.6%) followed by public management (29.2%) and status quo (21.4%). The community management of the mangrove ecosystem provides opportunity for the local community to participate in management decision process. At the same time, the importance o f public funding for such activities is revealed in the analysis. The study suggests initiating scientific attempts on realistic area estimation and mapping o f the mangrove resources in the state. There should be attempts to identify and classify the species and document the traditional wisdom associated with them. Region specific studies are needed to establish and quantify the extent of association between mangrove ecosystem and the livelihood activities of local communities. The TEV justifies the increased resources allocation for the conservation efforts. Further, the implementation of community management system as institutional form for mangrove management in the state is suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Supply chain analysis of marine fish marketing system in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Jeyanthi, P; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KFisheries is a major allied sector of agriculture contributing about 0.8 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5.15 per cent to agricultural GDP in India. Marine fisheries supports around 10 million people providing livelihood and employment directly or indirectly. Fish also provides more than one billion people living below the poverty line with most of their daily animal protein requirement globally. Kerala is a state known for its fish consumption which is more than four times the national average. However, the marine domestic fish marketing system faces several challenges in the process of distributing fish from the producer to the consumer. The study was conducted in Kerala state, which is the fourth largest fish producer in the country, and covered coastal and land locked (non-coastal) regions. The objectives of the study were to identify the supply chain of selected fish species, to assess the structure and performance of domestic fish markets, to examine the market integration and price transmission among the markets and to assess the consumer perception and suggest policy guidelines for improved fish marketing in Kerala. Two coastal districts viz., Ernakulam (E) and Kollam (K) and two land locked districts, Idukki (I) and Pathanamthitta (P) were selected and data was collected using simple random sampling from various marketing functionaries (producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers). Since the species composition of marine fish landings is varied, the study focused on four high value (seer fish, shrimp, pomfret and tuna) and four low value but commonly consumed fish species (sardine, mackerel, anchovies, threadfin bream). Supply chain of the selected fish species was identified using the framework of Feller et al, 2006. Market performance of producers, wholesalers and retailers were assessed using Data Envelopment Analysis. The co-integration test was used to analyses the market integration of selected market pairs. Conjoint analysis was used to determine the attributes responsible for their fish purchasing behaviour. The constraints faced by the market functionaries were ranked using Rank Based Quotient. The generic supply chain of fish identified involved the auctioneer, wholesaler, retailers, secondary retailers, between the producer and the consumer. This is almost similar to the supply chain of other perishable like fruits, vegetables and flowers. The supply chain for sardine, tuna and thread fin bream also involved extra nodes in their supply chain due to industry specific demands like feed and other specialized products. The market structure of domestic fish markets was not efficient. The main reason being lack of infrastructure such as cold storage, well planned display and assemblage platforms, potable water and weighing balance. Market performance of producers was measured at the five landing centres in Ernakulam and Kollam and it was observed that only one market was efficient in each of the districts. It was revealed that the nature of inefficiency was due to scale rather than technology. In both Ernakulam and Kollam, only one wholesale market each was efficient and all other markets showed high technical efficiency i.e., above 0.80. In both wholesale and retail markets, the technical efficiency was relatively low in Idukki and Pathanamthitta with it being least in Idukki. It was revealed that the markets in the coastal regions showed relatively high technical efficiency than the land locked regions because of the higher volumes handled in the markets due to proximity with the landing centres, viz, the primary production centres, which is not so easily accessible to the land locked districts. Among wholesale markets, one market pair in Ernakulam, one in Idukki and one in Pathanamthitta showed co-integration and among retail one each in Ernkulam and Pathanamthitta showed co-integration. This indicates that in these markets there is a possibility of long run equilibrium in prices. The existence of low short run market integration (SRMI) at both wholesale as well as retail market levels was observed among the co-integrated market pairs. Consumer preference was for fresh fish in all the four districts studied in cleaned and cut form from retailers, wholesalers or wholesaler-cum-retailer. Sardine was the most preferred species in both coastal and landlocked regions of Kerala with more than 75 and 72 per cent of respondents, respectively, consuming it daily. The relative importance of attributes that consumer in Ernakulam and Kollam looked at while purchasing fish was fish species in fresh form and income. In Idukki and Pathanamthitta, availability and income were the relatively important attributes. Based on the pooled response of market functionaries in the selected districts the domination of middlemen was the major constraint for producers, wholesalers and retailers. Safety and quality of fish was the major constraint of consumers. The studies on efficiency of fish supply chain in line with the changing consumer preference are the future line of work towards sustainable fisheries development.ThesisItem Open Access Economic assessment of the use of microbial inoculants in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in Idukki district(Department of Agricultural Economics, Vellayani, 2017) Salma Muslim; KAU; Santha, A MThe research entitled ‘Economic assessment of the use of microbial inoculants in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in Idukki district. The objectives of the study were to quantify the extent of use of microbial inoculants (MI) used in black pepper, assess the economics of microbial inoculants (MI) application and identify the constraints of microbial inoculants adoption in pepper cultivation. At the first stage two blocks namely Kattappana and Nedumkandam were selected purposively and Irattayar and Nedumkandam panchayat were selected respectively from the 2 development blocks. The required information was collected from 30 MI using farmers and 30 non-MI farmers of black pepper by simple random sampling from the two panchayats. Thus the total sample size was 60. Percentage analysis was done to analyze socio economic variables and extent of adoption of MI. Cost ABC concept was used to calculate the cost of cultivation of MI using farmers and non-MI farmers separately. Resource use efficiency was calculated using Cobb Douglas production function and constraints were ranked by Garret’s ranking technique. Black pepper occupied about 45 per cent of cropped area and 30 per cent area occupied by cardamom. Plantation crops like cocoa, coffee, spices like nutmeg clove, vanilla and annuals like banana and vegetables were also cultivated in this area. Major varieties of black pepper cultivated were Panniyur I, Panniyur 4, local varieties like Karimunda, Neelamundi, Vellamundi, Kottanadan, Kuthiravaly, Kalluvallyand major standards for trailing pepper were Murukku, Silver Oak and Kilinjil. Average size of land holding was 1.85 ha for MI using farmers and 2.10 ha for non-MI farmers. Seventy three per cent of MI using farmers and 56 per cent of non-MI farmers had holdings ranging from 0.4-1.2 ha under pepper. Forty percent of high income farmers were following non-MI pepper farming. Analysis of extent of use of microbial inoculants revealed that only 33 per cent were following the recommended rate of MI whereas 46.6 per cent of farmers used in excess.Total cost of cultivation of black pepper per hectare was more for non-MI farmers when compared to MI using farmers. Cost A1 of MI adopted farmers was Rs. 133797.24 ha-1 and that for non-MI was Rs. 155720.64 ha-1. Cost C was calculated as Rs. 295050.13 ha-1 and Rs. 439399.87 ha-1 for MI using famers and non-MI respectively. Major share of cost A1 was contributed by cost of hired labourfor both categories followed by cost of manures, fertilizers and soil ameliorants. Yield of black pepper did not show much difference, but the farmers using MI were mostly following organic farming, fetches a higher price of Rs.700 per kg against the price ofRs.680 per kg for the non-MI famers. Net returns at cost C for MI using farmers was Rs. 135749.75 which was higher than that of non-MI farmers. BC ratios were 1.8 and 1.23 for MI adopters and non-MI farmers respectively at cost C. The Cobb Douglas production function analysis showed that number of bearing pepper vines had a positive and significant impact on yield in both the cases. In case of MI using farmers along with number of bearing vines, quantity of manures had positive and significant impact on yield. Quantity of MI showed positive coefficient but was non-significant. For the non-MI pepper farmers, number of hired labour and quantity of manures showed positive and significant impact in addition to number of bearing pepper vines. Difficulty in proper identification of pests and diseases in the study area, less availability of microbial inoculants other than Pseudomonas and Trichoderma, Lack of knowledge about recommended method, dose and time of application of MI and climate change were the major constraints observed. Present research revealed that by using MI, farmers could reduce the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides; thereby they could reduce the cost of cultivation and increase profitability. Excess adoption of MI was prominent among the users and proper guidance is required to the farmers on the application of recommended dose of microbial inoculants along with adequate availability of all microbial inoculants.ThesisItem Open Access Market access to quality paddy seed in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Fathimath Nufaisa, P; KAU; Prema, ASeed is the basic and critical input in agricultural production. It helps to enhance production without adding much to the extent of land under cultivation. Area under rice in Kerala fell from 2.34 Lakh hectares in 2009-10 to 1.99 lakh hectares in 2015-16, the production corresponding to the above period registered a reduction of only 0.49 Lakh tones. Availability and access to quality seeds is one of the important aspect in maintaining at least the current level of production of rice in the state. Hence the present study was carried out to document the major rice seed supply chains in Kerala and to assess their economic performance, to elucidate the demand - supply gap in rice seed production and to conduct a SWOC analysis of the rice seed market in the state. The study was conducted in three major rice growing districts in Kerala viz., Palakkad, Alappuzha and Thrissur. From each district one block having maximum area under rice cultivation was selected and from each block two panchayaths were randomly selected. Primary data collection was done from 60 rice farmers and 60 rice seed growers in the selected panchayaths. Relevant data were also collected from Kerala State Seed Development Authority (KSSDA), Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) research stations and National Seeds Corporation (NSC). Rice seed supply chains in Kerala could be broadly classified into formal and informal system. The informal system constitutes farm saved seed and seed exchange among farmers, friends and relatives. The formal rice seed supply system constitutes institutionalized rice seed supply mechanisms. Major formal rice seed supply chains identified were KSSDA rice seed supply chain, KAU rice seed supply chain and NSC rice seed supply chain. Economic performance of rice seed production under the identified supply chains was analyzed using Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) cost concepts and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR). BCR of rice seed production in KAU research farm was 0.76 followed by 0.89 for KSSDA and 1.04 for participatory rice seed production in KAU. Seed production systems in KAU research farms and KSSDA was found to be economically inefficient as indicated by the BCR values. Demand- supply gap in rice seed production was worked out as the difference between the quantity of high yielding variety seed required for the area reported and the quantity of seeds distributed through the formal supply chains. The demand supply gap over the years (2012 to 2016) ranged from 30 per cent to 50 per cent of the total demand indicating that 50-70 per cent of total rice seed demand was met through formal rice seed supply system. KSSDA was found to be the major source of rice seed supply (88.97 per cent) followed by NSC ( 8.57per cent) and KAU (2.46 per cent). Constraints faced by rice farmers in access to quality rice seed was analyzed using Garrett ranking technique. Timely availability of rice seed was the major constraint followed by poor rice seed quality. Analysis of constraints faced by seed growers have shown that lack of timely procurement and payment was the major constraint. Strengthening of seed production system with establishment of separate seed certification agency and sufficient seed storage and processing facilities at seed growers’ level was suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Economic feasibility of vegetable production under polyhouse cultivation(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Swathylakshmi, P V; KAU; Prema, APolyhouse cultivation of vegetables is emerging as a specialized production technology to overcome biotic and abiotic stresses and to break the seasonal barrier to production. It also ensures round the year production of high value vegetables especially, during off-season. Recent statistics show that about 115 countries in the world are into polyhouse vegetable production. The area under polyhouse vegetable cultivation in India is around 2000 hectares. Since polyhouse production is a capital intensive technology requiring substantial initial investment, cost is the major issue in sustaining this technology. The present study was undertaken to assess the economic feasibility of polyhouse cultivation of vegetables in Kerala. The profitability and resource use efficiency of vegetable production in polyhouse and open field situations and the factors which influence the decision making of farmers with regard to adoption of precision farming was also found. The major challenges faced by polyhouse farmers of Kerala were also enlisted. Out of the five agro ecological zones of Kerala, central and high range zones were selected as the study area, as these zones accounted for the maximum number of polyhouses in the state. In the high range zone both Idukki and Wayanad districts and from the central zone, the districts of Emakulam, Thrissur and Palakkad were selected. Twenty polyhouse and 20 open field vegetable farmers selected randomly from each zone formed the respondents of the study. The number of respondents in a district was fixed proportional to the total number of farmers in the district concerned. Thus the total sample size comprises of 40 polyhouse vegetable farmers and 40 open field vegetable farmers. Data were collected by personal interview method using pre-tested structured interview schedules. The survey indicated that majority of the farmers owned polyhouses of area 400m2' . Salad cucumber and cowpea were the commonly cultivated polyhouse crops in the study area. Hence, economic analyses were conducted for the crops m 2 salad cucumber and cowpea and for a polyhouse of standard size 400m . Comparative studies were done for cowpea alone, as farmers cultivating salad cucumber in open field were not available. Economic feasibility of vegetable production analyzed using Capital Productivity Analysis revealed that production of salad cucumber in polyhouse and cowpea in open field is highly feasible and profitable. Production of cowpea in polyhouse indicated unfavourable Benefit Cost Ratio, negative Net Present Value and low Internal Rate of Returns. When the resource use of cowpea production in polyhouse and open field was compared, production and net returns per unit area was found significantly high in cowpea cultivated in polyhouse. Nevertheless, the significantly higher value of seeds, quantity of soil ameliorants, manures, and bio control agents applied contributed to higher cost of cultivation along with the huge initial investment in polyhouse. The resource use efficiency of production was estimated using Cobb- Douglas production function. The best fit model for salad cucumber production in polyhouse could explain 59 per cent of the variations in the net returns per m . Value of seeds, value of hired labour, quantity of soil ameliorants and fertilizers applied were the significant variables. The best model for cowpea in polyhouse could explain 57 per cent of variations in the net returns per m2. Value of hired labour and quantity of manures applied were the significant variables. Ninety four per cent of the variations in net returns per m could be explained by the selected functional model for cowpea production in the open field. The significant variables obtained were value of seeds, quantity of manures, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals and bio control agents applied. Increasing Returns to Scale was observed in the production of salad cucumber in polyhouse (1.60), cowpea in polyhouse (1.57) and cowpea in open field (2.01) conditions. The efficiency ratio of vegetable cultivation in polyhouse and open field estimated revealed that resources are not efficiently utilized in polyhouse cultivation of vegetables to the maximum economic advantage. When judged against the economic efficiency of the same inputs (fertilizers and growth promoters) used in polyhouse cultivation of cowpea, the economic efficiency in open field cultivation is seem advantageous. There was high level of agreement between the polyhouse farmers of the central and high range zone in enlisting the high initial investment involved, followed by farmer’s lack of technical knowledge, non availability of technical experts in local area and non availability of premium price for produce as the major challenges faced. The major benefits of polyhouse farming as perceived by the respondents included the possibility of growing and consuming safe vegetables, possibility of growing off season vegetables, better quality produce, higher yield and income obtained from polyhouse cultivation. The factors leading to a decision by the farmers towards shifting to polyhouse cultivation from open field cultivation subject to the extreme conditions of weather were found to be family income, size of land holding and education of the farmer, with odds ratios of 0.74, 0.72 and 0.68 respectively. Though polyhouse cultivation is a promising new technology, its suitability in Kerala conditions has to be studied extensively. Even though, institutional credit and subsidy schemes are well implemented to promote the technology, farmers are still in dilemma when it comes to cultivation aspects, for most of them it is a new venture. Higher Returns to Scale in polyhouse signifies its economic potential in large scale cultivation. Research efforts aimed at reducing the establishment cost of polyhouse should be initiated. The extension linkage has to be strengthened to aid the polyhouse farmers in selection of crops, cultivation, post harvest handling and marketing of produce.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of production, marketing and price behavior of coconut(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Preethi, V P; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KCoconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is an important crop cultivated in Kerala which covers 39 per cent of net area sown in the state and contributes 15 per cent to the state agricultural GDP. Even though the state has the largest area under coconut cultivation, per palm productivity is very low at 42 nuts per tree. Now the state is losing its share to other competitive states like Tamil Nadu which ranks first in production. Hence the present study was carried out to analyse the trend in area, production and productivity and price behaviour of coconut in Kerala along with an understanding of production and marketing structure. Kozhikode district was selected as the study area which has the largest area under coconut cultivation in Kerala. Based on the list of farmers collected from Krishibhavans, 40 farmers were randomly selected from the two selected blocks making a total sample size of 80. The information was also collected from 25 market intermediaries including wholesalers, retailers and millers. Trend analysis was done to understand the growth pattern of coconut in terms of area, production and productivity both at national and state level from 1980-01 to 2015-16. In India, area, production and productivity of coconut showed an increasing trend. The analysis on the growth performance of coconut in India revealed that area, production and productivity of coconut had shown an increasing trend, with the exception of growth in area and production during Period I. During Period II, in spite of a higher growth in productivity, the growth rate was lower for production due to stagnant growth in area. However, the growth in area, production and productivity during the overall period under study was significant and positive. In case of Kerala, productivity-based growth of output was observed which means that the growth in production of coconut was mainly by the contribution of growth in productivity rather than in area. The price behavior of coconut and copra in major markets of Kerala viz., Alappuzha and Kozhikode were analyzed by decomposing the monthly price data into four components viz., secular trend, seasonal variation, cyclical variation and irregular variation assuming a multiplicative model of time series. The price of coconut and copra in these markets showed an increasing trend in the long run. While analysing the seasonal variation it was noticed that during the Period I (1980-01 to 1995-96), price of coconut showed wide fluctuations in both the markets but it was considerably low in Period II (1995-96 to 2015-16) whereas, the seasonal variation of copra price in both the markets showed a similar pattern. Three to four cycles were seen in both the market prices but the length of cycles was observed to be varying. Co-integration analysis of coconut prices in the above two markets were carried out and it was revealed that both the markets were integrated. In order to provide additional evidence as to whether and in which direction, price transmission was occurred Granger causality test was carried out and the results proved the existence of unidirectional causality between Kozhikode and Alappuzha market prices in the long run. Since coconut is a perennial crop, its yielding phase was assumed to be 50 years, with a non-bearing phase of 7 years. The cost and returns were estimated taking into account the establishment cost and the maintenance cost. The cost of cultivation per hectare was Rs.1,01,989 with a net return of Rs.24,011. It was noted that human labour accounted for 50 per cent of the total cost. To evaluate resource use efficiency in coconut cultivation, Cobb-Douglas production function was fitted. Manures, fertilizers and plant protection chemicals were found to be significantly contributing towards the yield. Moreover, an increasing returns to scale in coconut production was observed in the study area which implies that there is ample scope to increase the profit of farmers by proper adoption of technology and by optimal allocation of resources. Marketing plays a predominant role in agricultural development and is as important as production to any producer. Thus, an efficient marketing system can increase the level of income of producers and raise the satisfaction of consumers. Marketing of coconut needs further attention in Kerala, the land of coconut as it serves the lives for more than 80 per cent of the people in the state. The most common marketing channel identified in the study area was channel I (Producer- village trader- wholesaler- retailor- consumers). It was found that lack of storage facilities and fluctuating prices drive the producers to sell raw nuts immediately after harvesting instead of waiting for a higher price for their produce. Major constraints identified in the study area were wide fluctuations in coconut prices, high labour cost, pests and diseases attack and inadequate procurement scheme. In order to tackle these problems, it is necessary to encourage coconut farmers to replant old and senile trees by providing subsidy and ensure high production by strengthening the existing procurement scheme. Strategies emphasizing implementation of comprehensive coconut rejuvenation programmes, enhancing productivity through better technology integration and value addition through product diversification to ensure better price for farmers are suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Economic impact of climate change and adaptation strategies in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) cultivation in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, Vellayani, 2017) Amogh, P Kumar; KAU; Paul Lazarus, TThe research entitled “Economic impact of climate change and adaptation strategies in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) cultivation in Kerala” was conducted in Wayanad and Idukki districts. The objective of the study was to quantify the impact of climate change on black pepper, to understand the adaptation practices followed by farmers to overcome climate change and to study the extent of governments’ compensation to farmers due to weather extremes. Secondary data regarding area production, productivity and climatic variables were collected for Idukki and Wayanad districts for the period 1987-2016. Secondary data on compensation provided by government due to weather extremes were collected only for Wayanad district for the period 2005-2016 and primary data were confined to Wayanad district for the agricultural year 2015-2016. Panel data analysis was done to identify the climatic variables that are influencing the production, binary logit regression was fitted to understand the socioeconomic variables influencing adoption of adaptation practices, ABC cost concepts were used to calculate the annual maintenance cost of pepper farmers, Cobb Douglas production function was fitted to calculate the allocative efficiency of the resources, Garrett ranking technique to determine the constraints faced by pepper farmers and compound annual growth rate was calculated for the compensation given by the government during weather extremes to know the growth trend. From the panel data analysis, it was found that average temperature during Q3 (July – September) and Q4 (October – December) had a negative and significant impact on the production of pepper. A one percent increase in the average temperature during Q3 will decrease the production by 3.41 per cent and a one percent increase in the temperature during Q4 will decrease the production by 2.69 per cent. Rainfall during Q2 (April – June), which coincides with flowering of pepper, was found to have positive effect on production but was statistically insignificant. Binary logit regression analysis was done to identify the socioeconomic variables influencing adaptation practices followed by adopters. Number of year of experience in pepper farming was found to be statistically significant which had positive influence. From, the estimated partial elasticity, 1 per cent increase in year of farming experience in pepper will increase the probability of adopting adaptation practices by 0.99 per cent. Odds ratio obtained was 5.68 for year of experience in pepper farming. It indicated that farmers with more number of years of experience are likely to adopt adaptation practices five times higher than the farmers who have less experience. Cost A1 for the adopter farmers was `1,68,959.65 ha-1. Out of this, hired labour accounted for 39.30 per cent, followed by manures, fertilizers and soil ameliorants which was 21.13 per cent. Cost A2, Cost B and Cost C were `2,04,584.65 ha-1, `2,51,241.35 ha-1, and `2,79,533.43 ha-1respectively. In non adopter farmers Cost A1 was `1,56,149.14 ha-1. Out of this, hired labour accounted for 41.87 per cent, followed by manures, fertilizer and soil ameliorants 22.14 per cent. Cost A2, Cost B and Cost C were `1,93,649.14 ha-1, `2,42,160.42 ha-1, and `2,65,117.63 ha- 1 respectively. At Cost C, adopter farmers had 5.43 per cent more cost of cultivation per hectare than non adopter farmers. Gross returns of adopters and non adopters was `4,50,363.87 ha-1 and `3,10,953.04 ha-1 respectively. B-C ratio at Cost C for adopters was 1.61 and for non adopters it was 1.17. The allocative efficiency, in adopter and non adopter farmers, family labour was used sub optimally. Plant protection chemicals were underutilized and manures and fertilizers were over utilized by adopters, whereas both plant protection chemicals and manures and fertilizers were over utilized by non adopters. Garrett ranking technique was used to rank the major constraints faced by the farmers. Increase in high incidence of pest and disease and high labour cost were the major production constraints faced by adopters and non adopters respectively. Fluctuation in market prices was the major marketing constraint for both categories of farmers. High cost of adaptation practices and lack of knowledge about adaptation practices were major constraints for adaptation faced by adopters and non adopters respectively. Compensation to pepper farmers in Wayanad from government during drought was an average `48,64,984 per annum and is growing at the rate of 1.04 per cent per annum. Compensation for flooding due to heavy rainfall & high speed wind was an average `1,32,81,192 per annum and is also growing at the rate of 1.04 per cent per annum. Q3 and Q4 temperature had negative impact on pepper production. Increase in number of years of experience in farming increases the probability of adopting adaptation practices. Net returns of adopters were more than that of non adopters. Increase in labour cost, fluctuation in market prices and high cost of adaptation practices were major constraints faced by both farmers. Compensation by government due to drought and heavy rainfall & high speed wind showed a positive growth trend. A negative trend of rainfall was observed for both the districts. Hence adaptation measures to conserve water such as rain water harvesting system, mulching, spraying 1 per cent lime solution, moisture conservation tillage and growing drought tolerant varieties (Paniyur-5, Paniyur-6 and Paniyur-7) helps to reduce the risk of drought.
