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Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa
In the imperial Gazetteer of India 1878, Pusa was recorded as a government estate of about 1350 acres in Darbhanba. It was acquired by East India Company for running a stud farm to supply better breed of horses mainly for the army. Frequent incidence of glanders disease (swelling of glands), mostly affecting the valuable imported bloodstock made the civil veterinary department to shift the entire stock out of Pusa. A British tobacco concern Beg Sutherland & co. got the estate on lease but it also left in 1897 abandoning the government estate of Pusa.
Lord Mayo, The Viceroy and Governor General, had been repeatedly trying to get through his proposal for setting up a directorate general of Agriculture that would take care of the soil and its productivity, formulate newer techniques of cultivation, improve the quality of seeds and livestock and also arrange for imparting agricultural education. The government of India had invited a British expert. Dr. J. A. Voelcker who had submitted as report on the development of Indian agriculture. As a follow-up action, three experts in different fields were appointed for the first time during 1885 to 1895 namely, agricultural chemist (Dr. J. W. Leafer), cryptogamic botanist (Dr. R. A. Butler) and entomologist (Dr. H. Maxwell Lefroy) with headquarters at Dehradun (U.P.) in the forest Research Institute complex.
Surprisingly, until now Pusa, which was destined to become the centre of agricultural revolution in the country, was lying as before an abandoned government estate. In 1898. Lord Curzon took over as the viceroy. A widely traveled person and an administrator, he salvaged out the earlier proposal and got London’s approval for the appointment of the inspector General of Agriculture to which the first incumbent Mr. J. Mollison (Dy. Director of Agriculture, Bombay) joined in 1901 with headquarters at Nagpur
The then government of Bengal had mooted in 1902 a proposal to the centre for setting up a model cattle farm for improving the dilapidated condition of the livestock at Pusa estate where plenty of land, water and feed would be available, and with Mr. Mollison’s support this was accepted in principle. Around Pusa, there were many British planters and also an indigo research centre Dalsing Sarai (near Pusa). Mr. Mollison’s visits to this mini British kingdom and his strong recommendations. In favour of Pusa as the most ideal place for the Bengal government project obviously caught the attention for the viceroy.
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ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of profitability and sustainability of paddy-based cropping systems in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) SRI , KADIVETI NAVYA; SINHA, D. K.The current study, entitled "Assessment of profitability and sustainability of paddy-based cropping systems in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh” was performed to identify major paddy-based cropping systems in the study area, examine their costs and returns, resource use efficiency, and sustainability in various paddy based cropping systems. For the purpose of this study, three mandals i.e., Kota, Vakadu, and Ananthasagaram with paddy-based cropping systems were chosen. From each mandal, two villages were randomly selected making a total of six villages for the study. Twenty-five farmers were chosen randomly from each village. As a result, 50 sample respondents were chosen from every mandal and thus made the total sample analysed in the study of various paddy-based cropping systems. A total of 150 sample farmers were chosen for the study. A well-planned interview schedule was used to gather primary data from the farmers, and secondary data from statistical offices at various levels in the study area. The major cropping systems based on paddy observed in the study area were cropping system Ⅰ (paddy-groundnut), cropping system Ⅱ (paddy-paddy), & cropping system Ⅲ (paddy-cotton). The findings indicated that cropping system Ⅲ (Rs.160849.83) had the highest cost of cultivation, followed by cropping system Ⅰ (Rs.139634.59) and cropping system Ⅱ (Rs. 132024.42). Similarly, the gross returns obtained were in the same order, indicating that cropping system Ⅲ (Rs. 330072.45) observed the highest returns, followed by cropping system Ⅰ (Rs. 281916.83) and cropping system Ⅱ (Rs. 259072.90). The highest net income, Rs. 169222.62, was realised by the farmers under Cropping System III. The net returns for Cropping system Ⅰ and Cropping system Ⅱ were Rs. 141282.24, Rs. 127048.48, correspondingly. The highest output-input ratio was found for Cropping System III (2.05), succeeded by paddy-groundnut System (2.01) and paddy-paddy system (1.96). Therefore, it can be concluded that paddy-cotton cropping system was definitely the most profitable, followed by paddy-groundnut and then paddy-paddy. The findings of step-wise regression analysis in cropping system I demonstrated that regression coefficients of seeds, machine power, and FYM in paddy and seeds in groundnut were statistically significant. The MVP/MFC ratio for factors like seeds, machine power, and FYM in paddy and seeds in groundnut was more than unity, thus it may be inferred that increasing these inputs will have the potential to enhance the returns. In cropping system II, regression coefficients of fertiliser in kharif paddy and FYM and hired labour in rabi paddy had statistically positive and significant impact on yield. The MVP/MFC ratios for fertilisers in kharif paddy and FYM, as well as hired labour in rabi paddy, were estimated more than one, which indicated the further more usage of the inputs mentioned. The coefficient of hired labour in kharif paddy was estimated to be negatively significant, and the allocative efficiency of hired labour was found to be <1, implying that labour was employed more extensively than required level, recommending a drop in existing labour utilisation. In cropping system III, hired labour in paddy and machine power in cotton were favourably significant. The allocative efficiency for hired labour in paddy and machine power was estimated to be greater than one, indicating that these specific inputs may be employed more to attain maximum efficiency. It was opined that cropping system III (paddy-cotton) was the most sustainable and viable in the study region, followed by paddy-paddy (cropping system II) and paddy-groundnut (cropping system I), with percentages of sustainability assessed as 60.93%, 50.86%, and 42.88%, respectively. As per the results of the linear multiple regression analysis, factors like returns to cost ratio and the cost used for environmentally friendly inputs relative to overall cost of cultivation were significant in all the three cropping systems, whereas gross income per acre was found significant in paddy-groundnut and paddy-cotton cropping systems. The factor like pesticide productivity was positively significant in both cropping system I and cropping system II, while it was observed that fertiliser productivity was favourably significant in cropping system II and cropping system III and ratio of cost of owned inputs to total cost of cultivation was estimated significant in cropping system II.ThesisItem Open Access DEVELOPMENT PERFORMANCE OF DAIRY CO-OPERATIVE IN ODISHA: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) SRINATH, K.; Kumar, AmalenduIndia has a history of cooperation, primarily credit and non-credit cooperatives. The dairy cooperative model began with Anand Milk Union Limited (AMUL) in 1942, catalysing the "White Revolution" that transformed India's dairy sector. Today, dairy cooperatives benefit millions of farmers and consumers, making India world’s largest milk producer. India contributed 24 percent of the global milk production, with a total of 221.06 million metric tonnes in the fiscal year 2021-22. In 1965, the formation of NDDB led to the creation of an extensive plan called "Operation Flood" during 1970-71. The initial stage of this initiative covered the period from 1971 to 1981. Following this, the second phase, labelled as "Operation Flood II," occurred from April 1981 to March 1985. Subsequently, the program entered in its third phase. The core aim of this endeavour was to boost milk production nationwide. Notably, the eastern region of India, Odisha, witnessed a significant upswing in milk production starting in 1981. This surge was attributed to the strengthening of milk cooperative societies in the state. The present investigation was carried out to measure the development performance of dairy cooperative in Odisha. The objective of the study was to analyse the structural change and performance of dairy cooperatives, impact of dairy cooperative society on member and non-member, constraints faced by member dairy farmers and suggestion for promotion of dairy cooperative society. Primary and secondary data were utilised to evaluate the study's objectives. The primary data was gathered from 80 member and 80 non-member dairy farmers, while secondary data was gathered from different published sources such as the OMFED annual report, other publications, magazines, newspapers, and journals. The data was evaluated using the compound annual growth rate, the Heckman two-stage model, and principal component analysis. Physical performance at the federation level between 2010-2011 and 2019-2020. It showed that organised DCS was growing at a rate of 1.09 percent per year however functional DCS was growing at a rate only of 0.41 percent per year, and milk procurement is growing at a rate of 1.77 percent per year. The study also revealed that memberships climbed with a CAGR of 0.98 percent, reflecting the federation's stability and ability to attract members. The federation's financial performance over a decade shows consistent growth with positive Compound Annual Growth Rates (CAGR) of 2.39 percent for turnover, 4.14 percent for gross profit, and 2 percent for net profit. Thus, the performance of dairy cooperatives in the state appears to be quite satisfying. The union level experienced growth in functional societies, membership, milk procurement per day and per year, and pourer members, with CAGR rates of 3.04 percent, 0.51 percent, 5.28 percent, and 2.79 percent respectively. The financial performance highlights a 2.03 percent Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) in net profit, 2 percent CAGR in turnover, and 1.3 percent CAGR in share capital across a decade (2010-2011 to 2019-2020). The data signifies consistent growth in net profit, turnover, and share capital, underlining operational efficiency and financial well-being of the union. The research highlights critical characteristics that influence cooperative membership. Distance from the cooperative centre reduces the chance of participation, but higher milk prices and availability to veterinary services increase the taking of membership. Household age exhibits a negative correlation with membership, while distance from the market correlates positive. The study clearly demonstrated the positive influence of dairy cooperatives on the income of member household in Odisha. The study also looked at the problems faced by member dairy farmers. The major constraints faced by them were healthcare and breeding problem followed by production constraints and unavailability credit facility. The respondents sampled indicated a need for the extension of veterinary services and healthcare facilities at the society level to ensure the continued health of milch animals, which is essential. Hence, attention from the union might be required.ThesisItem Open Access Economics of production and marketing of Jaggery in Karnataka. (India)(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) V, CHINNIKRISHNA; Singh, Shiva PujanThe jaggery industry plays a vital role in the Indian economy due to its significance as a traditional sweetener and its potential for employment generation. India ranks second in global sugarcane production after Brazil. Jaggery, often referred to as "gur," holds cultural relevance and is produced widely across the nation. This study “Economics of production and marketing of Jaggery in Karnataka. (India)” explored the economics of jaggery production and marketing in two major sugarcane-producing districts of Karnataka, namely Mandya and Belagavi diatricts. The study analyse the cost and returns of jaggery production, identify key marketing channels, assess employment generation, and highlight constraints faced by farmers in both production and marketing aspects. The study was based on primary data collected from 75 respondents from each district. From each district 30 sugarcane growers, 30 jagerry producers and 15 market intermediaries was chosen for the study. It was observed that cost of cultivation of sugarcane was Rs. 141123.29 per hectare and Rs. 164956.54 per hectare in Mandya and Belagavi districts respectively. Total cost of cultivation in Belagavi district was found to be higher when compared to Mandya district. To study jagerry production, the jagerry production units are in divided into three groups based on the amount of jagerry produced. Group 1 consists of production units with production less than 50 tonnes. Group 2 consists of production units with 50-75 tonnes of production. Group 3 consits of production units with production more than 75 tonnes. It was revealed that within groups the profit increases from group 1 to group 3 whereas when the two districts are compared the returns in Mandya district was comparatively more. The benefit cost ratio of group 1 from Mandya and Belagavi districts were 1.34 and 1.29 respectively. The benefit cost ratio of group 2 from Mandya and Belagavi districts were 1.35 and 1.31 respectively. The benefit cost ratio of group 3 from Mandya and Belagavi district was 1.36 and 1.3 respectively. The cutting and crushing operation wanted more labour when compared to the other activities. When it comes to female labours packing activity creates more employment to women. Three marketing channels were found to be operating in the study area, Channel A: Producer---wholesaler---Retailer---Consumer, Channel B: Producer---Commission agent---Wholesaler---Retailer---Consumer, Channel C: Producer---Retailer---Consumer. According to the results of market efficiency, a measure of efficiency of all marketing channels, channel C (14.15% in Mandya and 13.57% in belagavi) had the highest efficiency followed by channel A and channel B. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) unveiled the key constraints faced by jaggery producers. Labor scarcity and high commission charges were seen as significant constraints affecting production and marketing aspects.ThesisItem Open Access Study of Secondary Agriculture Based Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Bengaluru District of Karnataka(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) GOWDA, ASHWITHA A S; SINGH, RITAMBHARAMicro, Small and Medium Enterprise is an important sector of economy, which plays significant role in the socio-economic upliftment of the country. Considering its ability to contribute to country’s economy, government is pushing the MSMEs towards success with various supporting schemes. MSME’s potential to contribute its best to the economy depends on the management of factors that influence their success and performance. Therefore, the study has been taken up in Bengaluru district to analyze the performance of secondary agriculture based MSMEs. The study has been taken up with the objectives of analyzing the performance, analyzing the factors of success and failure for the MSMEs. The study also focuses on how government support is affecting the MSMEs and construction of possible futuristic scenarios for the MSMEs. For the present study, 30 secondary agriculture based MSMEs were selected based on snowball sampling in Bengaluru district of Karnataka. The primary data was collected from the respondent units through personal interview on pre-tested schedule. Secondary data i.e., list of 5 secondary agriculture based MSMEs was collected from University of Agriculture Sciences, Bengaluru. The data was collected on the pretested statements also on Likert scale. The data was tabulated and analyzed using various analytical tools like Guilford methodology, principal component analysis, regression analysis and Likert scale to arrive at the conclusions. The result revealed that investment as an indicator of performance has highest importance with the scale value of 5.325. Result of the performance index showed that majority of the respondent secondary agriculture based MSMEs i.e., 53.33% were high performers followed by medium (43.3%) and low performers (3.33%) in the study area. This study identifies the factors that influence the success of secondary agriculture-based MSMEs and found that eight components contribute around 79% to the total variance of data set. Access to capital, resource mobilization, innovation, customer response, social skills of an entrepreneur, and competitive pricing strategy were identified as major factors that influence the success of these MSMEs and inefficient functioning of the same acts as a barrier to success of MSMEs. Focusing on these success factors will enable the MSMEs to work in a sustainable and profitable manner. The results showed that government support has significant positive impact on performance of the MSMEs along with the other factors like scale and size of an enterprise, efficiency indicators, risk and return, business growth, business environment and investment. With regard to construction of futuristic scenarios, four scenarios were constructed using government support and domestic demand as two dimensions under its high-high, high-low, low-high and low-low conditions. Scenario A with high government support and domestic demand was found to be most preferable for the growth of MSMEs and scenario D with low government support and domestic demand found to have the gloomiest economic scenario. Thus, MSMEs backed up by government support by arranging capacity building in product innovation, product differentiation and training programs will improvise the skills of the entrepreneur and employees which will enhance the performance and growth of MSMEs enabling them to function better and contribute well to the economy of the country.ThesisItem Open Access AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF MANDARIN ORANGE IN MAHARASHTRA(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) PURUSHOTTAM, BHOYAR AMRUTA; Singh, Shiva PujanMandarins are the most important crop globally and widely consumed as a wholesome fruit around the world for its delicious quality. In terms of world ranking, India stands as ninth largest producer of mandarin orange. India produced 10.5 million tons of mandarin orange in 2020-21, which accounts 3 percent of the world’s total production. It is the commercial citrus species in India, contributing 41 percent of the total citrus production of the country, followed by the sweet orange and acid lime. In India, mandarin orange ranks third in terms of production among all horticultural crops after banana and mangoes. Vidarbha region of Maharashtra globally renowned for producing the finest Mandarins and is the primary fruit crop in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, it is commonly known as the "Santra" and got GI tag in the year April, 2014. By taking these views into consideration, the present study, entitled “An Economic analysis of Production and Marketing of Mandarin Orange in Maharashtra” had been undertaken to conduct comparative study between the costs and returns, economic feasibility, marketing channel and their marketing efficiency in the area and the major constraints of Nagpur mandarin Orange in Nagpur and Amaravti district of Maharashtra. For this the primary data was collected from 150 farmers of study area out of which 75 respondents were taken from each Nagpur and Amravati district of Maharashtra. On overall farm level, the establishment cost of mandarin orange in Nagpur district was ` 2,69,831.41 and that in Amravati district, it was ` 2,64,292.62. The amortization cost calculated on total establishment cost was found to be ` 29,726.81 and ` 29,116.61 in Nagpur and Amravati districts respectively. For the maintenance of the orchard, the variable cost like hired labour, machine labour, family labour, manures, plant protection chemicals, irrigation charges were found to be `2,7100, ` 1,005.67, ` 2,460, ` 2,493.33, ` 936.49 and ` 526.67 respectively and in case of Amravati district, it was found to be ` 1,965.83, ` 1,038, ` 2,230, ` 2,762.67, ` 912.11 and ` 521.67, respectively. The total returns per hectare obtained in case of Nagpur was 9.27 tonnes, which was comparatively less as compared to Amravati district where the returns per hectare was 9.46 tonnes. The gross return was found to be ` 1,85,459.59 and ` 1,89,159.91 in Nagpur and Amravati districts respectively. The calculated net return was more in Amravati district which was ` 1,25,563.85 and in Nagpur, it was ` 1,20,662.84. The discounted Net Present Value (NPV) per hectare was observed more in Amravati. It was found ` 4,29,774.12 in Nagpur and ` 4,40,696.52 in Amravati district. The IRR was more in Amaravti district with 14.46 percent than that of Nagpur district which was with 12.98 percent. The BC Ratio was more in Amravati at 1.74 and comparatively less that was 1.66 in Nagpur district. The estimated PBP in Nagpur was 6.36 years that was more as compared to Amaravti which was 6.64 years. Three marketing channels were identified in the study area those are, Channel-I: Grower—Pre-harvest contractor—commission agent—wholesalers—retailer—consumer, Channel-II: Grower—pre-harvest contractor—wholesaler—processing unit—retailer—consumer, Channel-III: Grower – wholesaler—retailer—consumer. The total marketing cost was obtained to be more in case of Amravati district i.e., ` 5707.21 and comparatively less in Nagpur district i.e., ` 5533.87. The marketing margin was more in Nagpur district ` 9600 and in Amravati district, it was only ` 9577.67. In Amravati, farmer’s share in consumer’s rupees was more (55%) as that of Nagpur (52%). The overall marketing efficiency was computed comparatively high to be more in case of Amravati, i.e., 1.66 and in case of Nagpur, it was found to be ` 1.61. Comparing the constraints faced by mandarin orange growers in Nagpur and Amravati districts, it was observed that both regions identify "High initial investment" as a prominent challenge, Additionally, "Monopoly of traders" and "Fruit drop" hold significant positions in both districts, ranking second and third in Amravati, and third and fifth in Nagpur, respectively. The “Non-availability of quality planting materials” ranks higher in Nagpur(second) compared to Amravati (fourth), while "Non-availability of skilled labour during peak season" was more pronounced in Amravati (fifth) than in Nagpur(fourth). Notably, "Insect pest attack," "Demand of high labour wages," "Water scarcity," and "Wild animal, birds attack" showed comparable rankings in both districts. However, the "High cost of inputs" constraint ranked higher in Amravati (tenth) as compared to Nagpur(seventh). Comparing the constraints faced by middlemen of mandarin orange in Nagpur and Amravati districts identified "Market fluctuations" as the foremost constraint. "Commercial grading and cleaning" and "Lack of market infrastructure" share the second rank. The third rank was similarly occupied by "Lack of market information" in Nagpur and "Lack of market information" in Amravati district. Notably, both districts identify "High transportation cost" as a significant challenge, ranking fifth in both Nagpur and Amravati district.ThesisItem Open Access Farm Diversification in Flood Affected Areas of Assam and Bihar(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) BARUAH, SHYAMOLEEMA SARMAH; KUMARI, TULIKASome parts of India are highly vulnerable to floods, which causes serious damage to lives and livelihood system. Due to submergence of crop for prolonged periods farmers sometimes face complete crop loss and as mono-cropping patterns have been prevalent in most places, the probability of losing income increases substantially which brings the importance of diversification in the flood prone areas for income generation and livelihood security. The term "diversification" was formerly mainly associated with subsistence farming, in which farmers raised a variety of crops on their land. Farm diversification acts as a risk mitigating strategy for both financial risk and natural risk. In the present study, attempts were made to study farm diversification in one of the most flood prone states of the country i.e., Assam and Bihar. The objectives of the study were to estimate the production risk of major agricultural crops in the study areas, extent of farm diversification, factors affecting farm diversification and to examine the adaptation and mitigation measures followed by the locals in the study area. For the purpose, Sonitpur and Darbhanga districts from Assam and Bihar were selected purposively as they are highly flood-prone areas. Two blocks from each district and a cluster of villages from each block were randomly selected to collect data from a total respondent of 180. The findings of the study revealed that the major cereal and pulse crop grown in kharif season are more prone to flood and these crops show high instability in production. Hence, it can be concluded that flood is one of the important factors of production risk in kharif. The instability in vegetables, grown in rabi and zaid season, may be due to fluctuation in market prices. The other reasons for declining growth rate and instability in rabi crops like wheat may be due to shift in area towards paddy or non-agriculture use. The results of the diversification indicate that more than 50 per cent farmers of Sonitpur district of Assam were having highly diversified farm. 11.11 per cent farmers were under low diversification. In case of Darbhanga, more than 50 per cent farmers were under moderately diversified group. Only 30 per cent farmers were having highly diversified farm. Under low diversification, the percentage of farmers in Darbhanga is relatively high as compared to Sonitpur, Assam. Among the factors that were affecting farm diversification level. Age, farming experience, education, mass-media, distance from nearest market, chronically and occasionally flooded area and total farm income had significant influence on farmers’ decision to diversify in Sonitpur were major. Whereas, farming experience, access to institutional credit, total farm income, total cultivated area and chronically and occasionally flooded area had significant influence on farmers’ decision to diversify in Darbhanga. Among mitigation strategies adapted by the respondents, in Sonitpur crop insurance, rearing livestock, sand bag walls, early harvesting of crop, farming of short duration crops and flood tolerant varieties has been categorised under most significant risk mitigating strategy whereas in Darbhanga, livestock rearing, raising floor levels, sand bag walls were categorised under most significant risk mitigating strategy. In, this situation, proper embankment along rivers, field demonstration of flood tolerant varieties, awareness about farm diversification, developing credit facilities, cold storage facilities, policy regarding incentives for the farmers for rearing livestock, strengthening of existing dairy cooperatives and awareness programme for the farmers to take insurance is needed in the study area to improve farmers’ livelihood.ThesisItem Open Access AN ASSESSMENT OF PROFITABILITY AND YIELD GAP IN SUGARCANE PRODUCTION IN CENTRAL PLAIN ZONE OF UTTAR PRADESH – A CASE STUDY OF SITAPUR DISTRICT(RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) BHARTI, AJAY KUMAR; SINGH, SHIVA PUJANSugarcane is one of the most important Industrial crops and the main source of income of the million people in the world. The present study aims to analyses the cost and returns of sugarcane, resource use efficiency of inputs, yield gap analysis and constraints of sugarcane growers in Sitapur district of Uttar Pradesh. The primary data was obtained from 150 farmers of Sitapur district of Uttar Pradesh by using survey method. The study revealed that the cost of cultivation of sugarcane (plant) was estimated Rs. 162959.80 per hectare, out of which share of variable cost and overhead cost were 66.55% and 33.45%, respectively. Farm size wise analysis showed that cost of cultivation of sugarcane increased with increasing size of land holding. Out of all items of costs of sugarcane (plant), the rental value of owned land emerged out to be the most important percentage share of sugarcane plant (22.09 %) of the total cost, followed by human labour (14.78 %) and seeds/ cane setts (14.32 %), while total cost of cultivation of sugarcane (ratoon) were estimated Rs.114939.61, out of which share of variable and fixed cost were 64.63 % and 35.37 %, respectively. The rental value of owned land emerged out to be the most important one and accounted for (24.36 %) of the total cost in sugarcane (ratoon), followed by human labour (13.79 %) and seeds/ cane setts (5.99 %). Size wise analysis of cost of cultivation of sugarcane showed that the cost of cultivation of sugarcane increased with increasing size of land holding. The operational cost showed decreasing trend with increase in the farm size, while material cost revealed the decreasing trend. The study also revealed that, the overall gross returns per hectare of sugarcane plant was Rs. 267725.82 and ratoon crop was Rs. 221346.15. The net return of sugarcane per hectare of plant and ratoon were Rs. 84470.04, Rs. 94912.57, respectively. Farm business income of both sugarcane (plant) and ratoon were Rs. 156952.18 and Rs.146845.05, family labour income for plant and ratoon were Rs. 115997.40 and Rs.115148.91, farm investment income ware Rs.145720.76 and Rs.138102.68 in the study area. Resource use efficiency analyses that the value of multiple determination (R2) was found 0.95, indicating that 95 % variation in output explained jointly by 5 independent variables like human labour, machine labour, cane setts, irrigation, and fertilizers under study area. The regression coefficients of variables like human labour and machine labour were found that negative and significant. The regression coefficients of inputs like irrigation and fertilizers were found to be positive but not significant. The sum of elasticity (Σbi) was calculated 0.97, showing decreasing returns to scale. The marginal value of productivity of human labour, machine labour, seeds/cane setts, irrigation, and fertilizers were computed to be -89.98, -1432.82, -4287.49, 148.28, 202.65, respectively. The value of MVPx/ MFCx for human labour, machine labour, seeds/cane setts, irrigation, fertilizers were -0.004, -0.219, -0.167, 0.006, 0.011. Therefor it is clear from the discussion that human labour, machine labour and seeds/cane setts were overutilized and the resources irrigation and fertilizers were underutilized and thus there was ample scope for optimum use putting these resources under to raise the gross returns. It was found that yield gap-II among all size group of farms of sugarcane in the study area was comparatively very high on marginal farms 48.42 tonnes and lowest on large farms 13.47 tonnes per hectares, yield gap was found to be negatively related with the size of the farms. It may be contemplated that performers of farmers of all the size groups were not up to the mark so there is scope to improve the yield of sugarcane crops in the study area. Unavailability of loan on time during peak period of sugarcane cultivations was the most important constraint, followed by that non availability loan in time of time, unavailability of labour during peak period and pests and disease hazards. The other least important constraint was lack knowledge of improved technology and poor management of family labours. It was being difficult for the marginal farmers to utilize all the recommended packages of practices of sugarcane crop to attain potential yield to earn the sufficient net income from cane production.ThesisItem Open Access ESTIMATION OF OUTPUT SUPPLY AND FACTOR DEMAND ELASTICITIES FOR MILK PRODUCTION IN SOUTHERN INDIA(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) LAKSHMIPRIYA, PATIBANDLA; Sinha, D. K.Milk is extremely important because it is the second largest contribution of world agricultural output. In addition, it is an essential part of the vegetarian diet in countries like India. However, dairy producers are not compensated fairly for their milk production. Farmers that want to improve milk output need financial incentives, which can only be provided by a system that rewards them for doing so. One needs a solid empirical understanding of how sensitive factor demand and product supply are to changes in relative prices and technological developments in order to develop an effective pricing strategy. With these factors in mind, the current study was conducted in Southern India to analyze the costs and returns from milk production, to determine the profit efficiency of dairy farms and the factors affecting it, estimate the output supply and factor demand elasticities for milk production, find the cost elasticities and net income elasticities, and assess the constraints faced by dairy farmers in milk production. An interview schedule was used to obtain primary data from 240 respondents of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu to achieve the objectives of the study. For the years 2019–20 and 2020–21, secondary data on milk production and livestock population from a wide variety of sources, including websites, research journals, government publications, the Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, and milk unions like BAMUL (KN) and Aavin (TN), etc. Selected respondents were post stratified into three herd-size categories using the Cumulative Square Root Frequency Method: Small (1-3 milch animals), Medium (4-6 milch animals), and Large (7 or more milch animals). The statistical tools included the use of tabular analysis, the Capital Recovery Cost (CRC) approach, the normalized translog profit function, cost and price determination models, the Stochastic Cobb-Douglas profit function, and the Garrets Ranking Technique. According to the results, daily average gross maintenance cost for milk production was highest for crossbred cows (₹ 234.12), followed by buffalo (₹ 163.82), and finally local cows (₹ 143.54). Crossbred cows had the highest net cost of ₹ 227.94 per milch animal per day, followed by buffalo at ₹ 159.67, and local cows at ₹ 139.93. Local cows had the highest cost per litre of milk produced (₹ 33.13), followed by buffalo (₹ 31.84) and crossbred cows (₹ 20.99). While the net return per litre of milk was positive for crossbred cows (₹ 5.67) and buffalo (₹ 3.30) across all herd size categories but it was negative for local cows (₹ -3.93) due to the high cost of feed and fodder and the poor milk yield. Perhaps the rejection of the test of symmetry can be rationalised by the farmers' goal to maximise the utility of agricultural by-products rather than profit maximisation. The magnitude of own price elasticities was negative for all the variable inputs. That milk farmers are more concerned with their own prices than the price of other inputs was made very evident. Overall, a majority of the estimated cross-price elasticity values had a negative sign, showing that the variable inputs are complementary to one another, with the exception of the values for dry fodder and concentrate to veterinarian services, which showed a positive sign and are substitutes for one another. There was a positive relationship between milk price and demand of all the variable inputs for milk production and a negative relationship between milk supply and the variable input prices. It was determined that the cost elasticities were positive in relation to the prices of variable inputs, whereas the net income elasticities were found to be negative. Milk prices would need to increase by 10.77 per cent for small herds, 11.24 per cent for medium herds, 11.82 per cent for large herds, and 11.02 per cent for the overall herd to maintain a constant net income (i=0), according to the growth of cost of production and net income models. To maintain consistent returns to the production cost, the milk price would need to be adjusted by 9.73, 10.32, 10.75, and 10.25 per cent for small, medium, large, and overall herd size categories, respectively. For the year 2029-30, small herd size categories were assessed to have an estimated cost of production per litre of milk of ₹ 67.51, while the medium, large and overall herd size categories have ₹ 69.09, ₹ 71.92, and ₹ 68.98, respectively. Comparatively, in the year 2029-30, the predicted price for milk at constant monetary net income and at constant return to production cost was observed to be ₹ 75.25 and ₹ 69.13 for small herd size categories; ₹ 79.61 and ₹ 73.93 for medium; ₹ 84.28 and ₹ 77.27 for large; and ₹ 77.65 and ₹ 72.97 for overall herd size categories, respectively. Using maximum likelihood estimates, it was found that overall, prices of green fodder (0.1873), prices of concentrate (0.1072), veterinary service rate (0.0569) and herd size (0.7545) all have a positive and statistically significant effect on normalized profits, while the prices of dry fodder (-0.0277) and labour wages (-0.1652) both have a negative and statistically significant effect. A total of 41.35 per cent of profit efficiency was lost due to technical and allocative inefficiencies in milk production, with the overall milk producers' mean profit efficiency of 58.65 per cent that ranging from 32.50 to 89.61 per cent, respectively. Overall, the profit inefficiency model found that a farmer's level of education, herd size, herd composition, and their level of dairy farming experience had a negative and statistically significant effect on profit inefficiency. Therefore, increasing the number of crossbred cows, enhancing dairy farm experience through educating farmers towards balanced feeding techniques, and adopting new technologies would assist in overcoming the inefficiency and subsequently raising the profit efficiency. Major constraints faced by milk producers were a shortage of green fodder round the year, poor conception rate through AI, high cost of medicines, high cost of construction of shed, lack of insurance facility, low price of crossbred cow milk and non-remunerative price for milk. For dairy farming to be profitable, extension institutions need to focus on services to include mobile veterinary clinics and training for farmers in areas like as feeding, breeding, disease control, heat detection, and marketing strategies. The study revealed that the majority of respondents in the study region are not happy with the procurement price offered by the milk collection centres. Therefore, rather than providing price incentives, farmers would benefit more from a rise in the price they are paid for milk that is at least proportionate to the cost of the feed fed to animals which helps farmers to improve productivity of animals and subsequently increasing the profits.ThesisItem Open Access A STUDY ON EXPORT OF MAJOR MARINE PRODUCTS FROM INDIA(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2023) JEEVITHA, G N; Singh, K. M.Indian fisheries sector contributed immensely to the country’s economic development as it is a promising contributor to foreign exchange earnings. Developing countries have inevitably acquired a superior position as international fish exporters. India occupies 3rd position as an international producer and 5th position as an international exporter in 2020. The growth of marine products exports benefits the country’s economy as it supports nutritional security and provides livelihood opportunities for coastal communities. The marine product exports contribution to India's total agricultural exports and its status as a consistent net exporter underscore its importance in international trade dynamics. The present study focuses on the international trade aspect of the India’s marine products to understand trends, export dynamics and market shifts over the period. The study revealed that the Crustacean exports primarily drove India’s total marine exports. Although Crustacean exports grew substantially over the second period (2011-2021), both in terms of quantity (11%) and value (10.45%), the unit value realization was not up to the mark. They were highly concentrated towards importers like UAS and China and highly competitive in the international market concerning both agricultural exports (average RSCA value of 0.69) and total merchandise exports (average RSCA value of 0.76) over the study period. The USA was the stable destination for India’s Crustaceans export. India’s Molluscs exports, though increased both in terms of quantity and value, their share in total exports remained more or less constant around 13 to 19 per cent. The Molluscs exported from India were competitive with average RSCA value of 0.51 concerning total merchandise exports and 0.38 with respect to agricultural exports over the study period and moderately concentrated in European countries and China. On the other hand, Frozen Fish exports were highly unstable both in terms of quantity (33.37) and value (35.95) during overall period. Their exports declined in recent years in both quantity and value terms, and their competitiveness exhibited a declining trend over the period. Their exports were highly concentrated towards China and Thailand. In recent years, China occupied the second position as a key importer of India’s marine products with a market share of 18.20 per cent and was also found to be the stable market for Molluscs export with retention probability of 0.83. Thailand has become one among India’s top five destinations, while Japan’s share declined over the study period. The study suggested emphasizing value addition and product development to improve the per-unit value of the exports. It is high time that India needs to diversify its exports in terms of both geographic destinations and export product basket to avoid risk and enhance its exports. India needs to improve its quality standards further to enhance its exports by gaining more comprehensive market access. It is also suggested to engage itself in trade negotiations to reduce market risks which can be very promising to sustain its exports in the long run.
