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Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa
In the imperial Gazetteer of India 1878, Pusa was recorded as a government estate of about 1350 acres in Darbhanba. It was acquired by East India Company for running a stud farm to supply better breed of horses mainly for the army. Frequent incidence of glanders disease (swelling of glands), mostly affecting the valuable imported bloodstock made the civil veterinary department to shift the entire stock out of Pusa. A British tobacco concern Beg Sutherland & co. got the estate on lease but it also left in 1897 abandoning the government estate of Pusa.
Lord Mayo, The Viceroy and Governor General, had been repeatedly trying to get through his proposal for setting up a directorate general of Agriculture that would take care of the soil and its productivity, formulate newer techniques of cultivation, improve the quality of seeds and livestock and also arrange for imparting agricultural education. The government of India had invited a British expert. Dr. J. A. Voelcker who had submitted as report on the development of Indian agriculture. As a follow-up action, three experts in different fields were appointed for the first time during 1885 to 1895 namely, agricultural chemist (Dr. J. W. Leafer), cryptogamic botanist (Dr. R. A. Butler) and entomologist (Dr. H. Maxwell Lefroy) with headquarters at Dehradun (U.P.) in the forest Research Institute complex.
Surprisingly, until now Pusa, which was destined to become the centre of agricultural revolution in the country, was lying as before an abandoned government estate. In 1898. Lord Curzon took over as the viceroy. A widely traveled person and an administrator, he salvaged out the earlier proposal and got London’s approval for the appointment of the inspector General of Agriculture to which the first incumbent Mr. J. Mollison (Dy. Director of Agriculture, Bombay) joined in 1901 with headquarters at Nagpur
The then government of Bengal had mooted in 1902 a proposal to the centre for setting up a model cattle farm for improving the dilapidated condition of the livestock at Pusa estate where plenty of land, water and feed would be available, and with Mr. Mollison’s support this was accepted in principle. Around Pusa, there were many British planters and also an indigo research centre Dalsing Sarai (near Pusa). Mr. Mollison’s visits to this mini British kingdom and his strong recommendations. In favour of Pusa as the most ideal place for the Bengal government project obviously caught the attention for the viceroy.
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ThesisItem Open Access PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF COTTON IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF GUNTUR DISTRICT(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2022) S, PAVITHRA; Mishra, R. R.Cotton is one of the most important fibre and cash crop of India which plays a dominate role in agricultural and industrial sectors. Considering the importance of cotton in the Indian economy, the present study was conducted with an objective to analyze the importance of cotton in cropping pattern, the growth and instability of cotton in production and trade aspects, to analyze resource use efficiency of cotton and cost and returns therefrom, integration of selected cotton markets and trade competitiveness of cotton. To fulfill the objectives of the study, primary and secondary data were used. Primary data of sample size 250 was collected from the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh by using interview schedules. Secondary data related area, production, productivity, import and export of cotton pertaining to a period of 30 years beginning from 1989-90 to 2018-19 were collected from various websites, research journals, government publications, etc. The data was further divided into three sub-periods period I (1989-90 to 1998-99), period II (1999-2000 to 2008-09) and period III (2009-10 to 2018-19) for the purpose of analysis. Monthly average price cotton in different selected market was collected for Rajkot market, Sirsa market, Hinganghat market, Adilabad market and Jhabua market from AGMARKNET from 2006 to 2021.Cropping pattern, compound annual growth rate, co-efficient of variation, Cuddy-Della Valle Index (CDVI), data envelopment method, cost concepts, correlation analysis, Augmented Dicky Fuller test, Johensen‘s co-integration test, Granger-causality test, nominal protection co-efficient, export performance ration and revealed symmetric comparative advantage techniques were used. It was found that the share of cotton in gross cropped area under commercial crop got more and more skewed as one moved from national level to district level and at the lowest level (district level), it was highly skewed in favour of cotton. The area under cotton cultivation in India had an increased growth at a decreasing rate during the whole period under consideration. While, the growth rate of production and productivity of cotton had a positive and significant growth of 4.82 per cent per annum and 2.96 per cent per annum, respectively during the overall study period. The area, production and productivity of cotton were relatively stable in India during the period under study. International trade of cotton was positive and significant during the overall period. International trade was found to be highly unstable during the study period. Resource use efficiency of the sample farmers showed 34 per cent increased use of inputs to produce same level of outputs, spending 41 per cent more than the cost required for input combination and farmers can reduce 65 per cent of cost of cultivation of cotton to produce same level of output. Cost of cultivation of cotton had increased along with the farm size during the study period. Per hectare yield of cotton was 32.47 quintals, the gross income was Rs. 1,59,769.48 and net-returns from the cotton was Rs. 42,385.50. The Benefit-cost ratio obtained was 1.36. Cost of production of cotton was Rs. 3,615.43 over cost C2. Price movement in selected cotton markets were highly correlated. There was no stationarity in price series. Long run relationship between the prices showed the 4 co-integrating equation which indicated that, out of 5, 4 markets were well co-integrated. Causal relationship between the prices of selected markets showed the bi-directional influence on the prices except markets pairs. Indian cotton was non- competitive in the global market but had a comparative advantage during the study period.ThesisItem Open Access IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON AGRICULTURE AND STATUS OF DECISION MAKING OF WOMEN IN BIHAR(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2021) KUMARI, KALPANA; Singh, K.M.The present study was carried out to assess the Impact of Migration on Agriculture and Status of Decision Making of Women in Bihar. The empirical analysis is based on a survey of 360 households comprising of 180 migrant and non-migrant households each from 12 villages of Samastipur, Darbhanga and Madhubani districts of North Bihar. The assessment of impact of male migration in empowering left behind women in various domains of household decisions revealed that the migration of male member have adequately empowered only 29.44 per cent of women. Larger proportion of women respondents (43.89 per cent) were moderately empowered and 29.67 per cent fell under low empowerment group. Women had enough power to make decisions about their health, education, and agricultural production. Women's decision-making in all farm activities, such as crop selection, input purchasing, labour management, and farm produce sales, indicated a fairly moderate level of empowerment. The yield of paddy was observed to be at par (27.49 q/ha) for migrant‟s households and (27.36 q/ha) for non-migrant farms. Similar trend was observed in case of wheat crop except machine labour charges which was found to be comparatively high in case of non-migrant households. The yield gap was more pronounced in the case of wheat, where the mean yield for migrant was found to be 30.21q/ha compared to 26.88q/ha for non-migrants. The Cobb-Douglas method was used to estimate the efficiencies of production parameters such as area, capital, human labour, machine labour, and irrigation cost for each crop from each group of respondents. Area under paddy (0.417), material costs (seed, fertilizers, and manure) (0.941), and machine labour (0.017) were found to have positive and statistically significant regression coefficients. The irrigation charge coefficient was found to be positive but statistically insignificant. Paddy cultivation in Bihar is generally done during the monsoon season, so external irrigation is less commonly used for paddy cultivation. Coefficient of human labour was negative in case of migrant farmers, showing excess use of human labours. In case of non-migrant, land and human labour coefficients were estimated positive and statistically significant. In case of wheat production, that migrant‟s households are required to use their land and human labour judiciously in cultivation of paddy crop. The regression coefficient of human labour under wheat cultivation (-0.027) was negative and insignificant that indicated that non-migrant farms use labour more judiciously. For wheat cultivation, regression coefficients of all the parameters of production are positive and significant except machine labour in case of migrants‟ households. For maize cultivation, migrant farms have used capital and human labour in more precise ways. The logistic regression model was used to determine the factors that causes migration revealed that young people from low-income families and those living in substandard housing were more likely to migrate. It may be observed that, education levels, land holding size, and marital status were all strongly associated with migration. Migration has significantly empowered left-behind women in numerous household and livelihood tasks. Migration had a good influence on migrants' households in terms of resource use efficiency, which helped to boost agricultural productivity. There is a positive relationship between migration and educational attainment, but a negative relationship between migration and migrants‟ age. Migrants' households spent most of their remittances on food (51 per cent). The most common destinations were mostly metropolitan and industrialised areas, where major portion of migrants were absorbed into construction work. It was also discovered that the main cause for their return migration was their desire to work at their native place.ThesisItem Open Access TRADE AND DOMESTIC MARKET: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SUGAR IN INDIA(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2021) PRAMOD, GAWARE UTKARSHA; Mishra, R.R.Sugar is an essential commodity derived largely from sugarcane which is an agricultural produce. It is the most preferred source of energy required for proper functioning of human brain and body. It acts as a sweetener in food and beverages. Apart from these, it has many non-food and beverages. Apart from these, it has many non-food applications. Because of these properties, there is a great demand for sugar in domestic and international markets. Looking at its importance, the present study was conducted with the main objective of estimating the growth and instability in production of sugarcane and examining the performance of Indian sugar trade over time. The study is based on both primary data and secondary data. Primary data were collected from randomly selected sugar exporters located all over India by conducting telephonic interviews. Secondary data were collected from various published and unpublished sources. The time-series data so collected pertained to a 30- year period spanning from 1989-90 to 2018-19. The entire period under consideration was further divided into three sub-periods- period I (1989-90 to 1998-99), period II (1999-2000 to 2008-09) and period III (2009-10 to 2018-19) for detailed analysis. Various statistical and econometric methods and tools and techniques like CAGR, CV and CII, Index number, Trend analysis, EPR, NPC, Markov Chain Analysis, Cobb Douglas Function, HHI, TEI, CEI, Rank Based Quotient and Garrett’s Ranking Technique were used to arrive at a meaningful conclusion. The area under sugarcane, its production and productivity increased at the rate of 1.20 per cent, 1.54 per cent and 0.34 per cent per annum, respectively in the period under study. Production of sugar increased at the rate of 3.15 per cent per annum whereas, consumption of sugar increased at 3.63 per cent per annum in the entire period. The export of sugar had positive growth of 11.13 per cent per annum. The value of exported sugar witnessed a growth of 12.72 per cent per annum while, there was 1.43 per cent annual growth in unit price of exported sugar. On the other hand quantum of imported sugar recorded a positive growth of 25.86 per cent per annum, value of imported sugar grew at the rate of 28.68 per cent per annum while unit price of imported sugar recorded a positive growth of 2.08 per cent per annum. The growth in area, production and productivity of sugarcane along with production and consumption of sugar in India was found to be relatively stable. The growth in trade of sugar showed high instability. The Indian sugar faced comparative disadvantage and non- competitiveness in the international market. Myanmar was the only loyal market for Indian sugar among the six major Indian sugar importing countries. Among all the factors undertaken, only exchange rate had a significantly negative influence on the sugar export from India. Myanmar had the lowest share of market in the initial years of study which increased gradually and became the highest shareholder of Indian sugar market at the end of study period. The Indian sugar was highly concentrated in a handful of countries. The major problems identified by the Indian sugar exporters were marketing problems, infrastructural problems, Governmental interventions, packaging problems, financial problems and time management. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that steps have to be taken for quality improvement of Indian sugar which includes setting up of storage and grading facilities for sugar. This will help Indian sugar to penetrate new overseas markets leading to higher returns to the exporters and to the country at large.ThesisItem Open Access Value Chain Analysis of Tomato in Kolar district of Karnataka(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2022) M, VIJAY N; KUMAR, AMALENDUThe current study aims at the value chain analysis of tomato, growth trends in area, production and productivity of tomato, actors and their activities involved in tomato value chain, to workout marketing channels, margins and marketing efficiency and constraints faced by various actors in Kolar district of Karnataka. Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. The primary data were collected from the 90 tomato growers from six randomly selected villages and secondary data were collected from India-stat, agriculture produce marketing committee, national horticultural board published yearly reports, and world processing tomato council articles. To study the marketing and value addition in tomato, 60 intermediaries’ households were also selected randomly. The growth trends of area, production and productivity of tomato in India was 1.47 per cent, 2.69 per cent and 1.22 per cent per annum respectively. The growth trends in area, production and productivity of tomato increased during the period from 2001 to 2020. The growth trends in area, production, productivity in Karnataka were -4.42 per cent, -2.40 per cent and 2.02 per cent per annum respectively. Trends in area and production were declined drastically from 2001 to 2019 and productivity shown positive trend in overall period in Karnataka. The growth trends of area, production and productivity in Kolar district were 0.90 per cent, 3.50 per cent and 2.55 per cent per annum respectively. The area, production and productivity shown positive growth during the period from 2001 to 2019. The study identified major actors and their activities in different tomato value chains. The main actors were input suppliers, producers, commission agents, wholesalers, retailers, processors, distributors and exporters, HOPCOMS and these actors were found actively engaged in supplying of inputs, marketing of produce and performed activities like grading, sorting, standardization, transportation, packing, value addition etc. in the study area. The actors were taking important part in production, marketing and value additions in the study area. Three channels were recognised in the study area namely, APMC, Supermarket and Processing Channel. The marketing efficiency per quintal of tomato was found higher in Channel-II about (1.50) compared to channel-I (0.80). Channel-II was emerging fastest growing channel in the study area. Producer’s share in consumer rupee was higher in Channel-II about (60.04 per cent) compared to channel-I (45.90 per cent). The marketing margin of market intermediaries acting on different value chains were, wholesalers (Rs.149.20 per quintal), retailers (Rs.225 per quintal) and commission agents who charges five per cent commission from farmers in channel-I and in case of channel-II only limited players i.e., organised retailers having margin Rs.158.38 per quintal. The price per quintal obtained by tomato growers under different channels were Rs.975.80 per quintal in channel-I, channel-II Rs.1099.50 per quintal and Rs.1056.00 per quintal. The major constraints were encountered by tomato growers was high cost on fertilizers, labour shortage and high wage rate, high pests and diseases at production level, among the marketing constraints, price fluctuation, a greater number of acting in tomato marketing, losses due to long supply chain, absence of storage facilities were the major difficulties faced by tomato farmers. Majority of market functionaries were facing price fluctuation, lack of storage facilities, high transportation cost, lack of grading were the key constraints in the study area.ThesisItem Open Access AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF COCONUT PRODUCTION IN HASSAN DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2021) K T, THILAK; Sinha, D. K.The present study aims at assessing the trends in area, production, productivity and exports from India, costs and returns involved in production of coconut, resource use efficiency of inputs, constraints in production and marketing of coconut in Hassan district of Karnataka. The primary data was obtained from 120 farmers from 10 randomly selected villages of Hassan district of Karnataka by using survey method. The area of coconut had increased from 1893 thousand hectares in 2001-02 to 2109 thousand hectares in 2019-20 with a small compound annual growth rate of 0.6 %. The production of coconut rose from 12822 thousand metric tonnes in 2001-02 to 19717 thousand metric tonnes in 2019-20 with a considerable compound annual growth rate of 2.4. on the other hand, the export of coconut and its by-products showed growth from 25.56 crores in 2001-02 to 2006.73 crores in 2019-20 with a solid compound annual growth rate of 33.9 %. On overall farms level, the inputs requirement for establishment of coconut orchard like, hired labour, family labour, machine labour, seedlings, manure and fertilizer were found to be 49.09 man days, 45.40 man days, 98.63 machine hours, 133.36 seedlings, 407.21 quintals and 741.31 kgs, respectively. On overall level, the total cost of establishment or (Cost-C2) of coconut orchard was estimated to be Rs.529259.79. On overall farms level, for maintenance, inputs requirements like, hired labour, family labour, machine labour, soil bedding, manure and fertilizer was assumed to be 19.18 man days, 13.25 man days, 14.50 machine hours, 97.04 loads, 96.97 quintals and 247.41 kgs respectively. On overall farms level, the total cost of maintenance or (Cost-C2) of coconut orchard was found to be Rs.168891.34. At overall farms level, gross return from coconut was found to be Rs.3,26,999.9. The main contributor to gross returns was main product with Rs.310763.7. Further, the incomes from husk, broom and leaf base were estimated to be Rs.14125.6, Rs.909.4 and Rs.1201.1 correspondingly. The returns over cost-A1, cost-A2, cost-B1, cost-B2, cost-C1, cost-C2, and cost-C3 at overall farms level were accounted to be Rs. 254320.54, Rs. 254320.54, Rs. 248199.90, Rs. 164737.10, Rs. 241571.31, Rs. 158108.51 and Rs. 141219.38, respectively. It is observed that, for the farm as a whole, net present value was estimated to be 3,67,195.57 Rs. /ha. Further, internal rate of return was revealed to be 15.12. The benefit cost ratio was found to be 1.19, for the farm as a whole. The value of multiple determination was found to be 0.76, indicating there by 76 per cent variation in output explained jointly by 5 independent variables like manure, fertilizer, human labour, machine labour and seedlings under study. The regression coefficients of variables like fertilizer, human labour and seedlings were revealed as positive and significant, indicating there by 1 per cent increase in these inputs over their geometric mean would increase the yield by 0.07, 0.05 and 1.07 per cent sequentially. The regression coefficients of variables like manure and machine labour were observed to be positive, but non-significant. The sum of elasticities (bi) value was observed to be 1.18, showing increasing returns to scale, that in turn implies that, input resources were being underutilized. The marginal value productivities of manure, fertilizer, human labour, machine labour and seedlings were computed to be 3237.44, 1337.97, 16549.44, 21506.65 and 7397.01, correspondingly. The values of MVPx/MFCx of manure, fertilizer, human labour, hired labour and seedlings were 21.58, 55.75, 33.10, 28.68 and 73.97. Therefore, it is crystal clear from the discussion that the resources were underutilized and there is ample scope of further use of these inputs to raise the gross returns. The major constraints faced by the coconut growers for overall farms level were identified as the unavailability of credit, water scarcity, high labour wage rate, timely unavailability of labour and pest and disease attack.ThesisItem Open Access AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING EFFICINCY OF LITCHI IN MUZAFFARPUR DISTRICT OF BIHAR(Dr.RPCAU, Pusa, 2021) KUMAWAT, SHIVLAL; KUMAR, JANMEJAYThe present study planned to analyze “An economic analysis of Supply Chain Management and Marketing Efficiency of Litchi in Muzaffarpur District of Bihar”. The district was selected purposely because of the leading litchi producing district in the State. For the purpose of study 140 respondents were interviewed which consisting of 60 litchi growers and 80 market intermediaries under the study. In the district, during the year 2019-20, litchi crop was extensively grown with an area of 33.4 thousand hectares and annual production of 258.3 thousand MT with the productivity of 7.8 MT/hectare. The trends of area, production and productivity of litchi in the district has showed increasing trend with 0.12, 0.014, and -0.12 annual compound growth rate respectively. In the state, the area, production and productivity of annual compound growth rate of litchi was 1.01, 0.5 and -0.4 percent respectively. The overall productivity in the State of Bihar and Muzaffarpur district was found negative whereas national level data showed positive trend. The main reasons behind negative trend were due to uncertainty of rainfall, poor nutrients management, and biennial fruit production in Bihar as well as in Muzaffarpur. The study showed that the marketing of litchi is a very complex procedure in the study area and four major types of marketing channels were identified. Channel I: Producer - Pre-harvest contractor - Commission agent cum Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer. Channel II: Producer- Village Trader- Wholesaler (local) – Commission agent (distant) – Wholesaler (distant) – Retailer –Consumer. Channel III: Producer - Retailer – Consumer. Channel IV: producer –consumer. The fourth channel Producer → Consumer, (local market) was found very much efficient for the producers as compared to other three identified marketing channel due to involvement of less number of middlemen. In fourth channel producer received 70.23 % of share in consumer rupee the rest share distributed 29.77 % was in marketing costs and margin. The price spread was found minimum for channel IV that is Rs. 493.38 per quintal due to absence of market middlemen. The marketing efficiency was highest in channel IV (2.02) & lowest in channel II (0.16) due to the reason that channel IV, producers directly sell their produce to consumer. The most important marketing constraints of litchi marketing was perishability of fruits with 98.92 mean score (With 1st Rank), followed by others problems i.e. labour shortage during harvesting reason, lack of market information, lack of marketing infrastructure, lack of organized marketing, high transportation cost for distant markets, problem of credit facility, unorganized production and price fluctuation etc. The study observed so many interesting facts about the marketing of litchi and suggested ways and means for improvement of marketing and supply chain for obtaining higher share of consumer to the producer.ThesisItem Open Access STUDY ON PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY CHAIN OF MENTHA OIL IN BARABANKI DISTRICT OF UTTAR PRADESH(DRPCAU, PUSA, 2021) PRAKASH, SATYA; Kumar, AmalenduThe present study aims to the study of production and supply chain of mentha herbs and mentha oil in Barabanki district of Uttar Pradesh. The study based on 120 sampled households selected through multistage sampling procedure from Barabanki district. The sampled household comprises 30 from mentha growers, 30 from mentha processing units and 60 from market intermediaries of mentha oil. The sampled of mentha growers was selected from three blocks namely Deva, Masauli and Fatehpur and from each block two villages were selected. In this way a total of six villages namely Ukhadi, Dewa, Semri, Rasauli, Banar and Madanpur. Out of total number of mentha growers’ marginal farmers were 11 (36.67 %), small farmers were 8 (26.67 %), medium farmers 7 (23.33 %) and large farmers 4 (13.33 %). Out of 30 mentha processor, 25 under the categories of small units and 5 large unit. Similarly, the household of market intermediaries comprises 25 village traders, 15 retailers and 20 wholesalers involved in marketing of mentha oil. The study finds that about (66.67 %) mentha growers were under the middle age group i.e., from 31 years to 50 years followed by 20 % under the age group of above 50 years and only 13.33 % growers were under the adult age group i.e., below 30 years. The study again showed that about 23.33 % farmers were qualified up to primary school followed by 20 % farmers were intermediate and illiterate level each followed by matriculation level 16.67 % followed by middle school level 13.33 % and under graduate level 6.67 %. In case of mentha processors the study finds that the family size ranges between 5.60 to 6.25 person per household and overall average was 6 persons. The average overall literacy level was 87.53 % amongst the sampled. It was observed that the majority of mentha processors were under the age group of 31 years to 50 years i.e., 56.67 % followed by adult age group 30 % i.e., under the age group of below 30 years and only 13.33 % were in the age group of above 50 years. The compound annual growth rate of area, production and productivity of Barabanki district indicates that a positive growth rate in area 6.50 % production 8.28 % and productivity 1.67 % and statistically significant at the level of 5 %. In case of state of Uttar Pradesh, the growth trend in area, production and productivity that an increase in area 8.69 % in production 10.09 % and productivity 1.40 % and statistically significant at 5 % level of significance. The compound growth rate of the country showed that an increasing trend in area 7.34 %, production 8.37 % and productivity 1.03 % and it was statistically insignificant at 5 % level. The cost and returns of mentha crop production indicate the total cost of cultivation across the farm found varied. In case of marginal farm cost was Rs. 81205.43, small farm was Rs. 78301.14, medium farm was Rs. 76400.11 and large farm was Rs. 79480.64. The overall average cost of the farm was Rs. 78846.83. The examination of returns from the investment indicates that the yield (quintal per hectare), gross return (Rs. per hectare), net return (Rs. per hectare) and benefit-cost ratio mentha cultivation were R.s 288.41, Rs.103827.60 and Rs. 24981.55 and 1:1.32. respectively at aggregate level however, the farm size wise analysis indicates a significant variation in the returns. The cost and return incurred in mentha oil production reveals that the overall cost of mentha oil processing (per unit per season) for small and large unit was borne to Rs. 535285.06 and Rs. 752146.98 respectively. The total cost of both categories of processing units indicates that the total cost varied with the variation of size of mentha processing units. The examination of efficiency parameters of mentha oil production indicated that the cost of oil production Rs. 813.69 per kg, gross return Rs. 822907.25 /unit/season, net return (Rs. 179191.23 /unit/season and benefit-cost ratio were 1: 1.28 at aggregate level. The produce of mentha oil passes through three different channels. In channel-1marketing cost was borne Rs. 135.73, marketing margin Rs. 109.75 and price spread 20.25 %. The producers share in consumers rupees was Rs.966.59 (79.75 %). In case of channel-2 marketing cost, marketing margin and price spread was estimated to Rs. 130.68 Rs.109.77 and 19.81 % respectively. The producers share in consumers rupees was Rs.973.47 (80.19 %). In the channel-3 marketing cost, marketing margin and price spread was Rs. 79.62 Rs. Rs. 57.50 and 7.53 %. The producers share in consumers rupees was Rs.977.49 (92.47 %). The analysis clearly indicates that the channel-3 is more remunerative followed by channel-2 and channel-1 in the study area. The study also identified various constraints faced by the growers, processors and intermediaries during the mentha cultivation, processing and marketing. It was observed that the major constraint that was reported by the mentha growers was the attack of insect- pests and on Garrett mean score it was 78.20. The other constraints i.e., high price fluctuation in the price of mentha oil as reported by majority of mentha growers i.e., 76.87 on Garrett Mean Score. The constraints which are reported by processors are Fear of boiler bursting with Garret Mean Score 70.63. Inadequate market information is main problem during the marketing of mentha oil with the Garrett Mean Score of 63.97. The major problem faced by the mentha processor while undertaking marketing operations was the lack of regulated market in the study area with Garrett Mean Score of 73.18. The study suggested many ways to strengthen the production, processing and marketing improvement as a policy measure.ThesisItem Open Access AN ASSESSMENT OF PROFITABILITY IN WHITE LEG SHRIMP FARMING IN BALASORE DISTRICT OF ODISHA(DRPCAU, PUSA, 2021) OJHA, PRADEEP KUMAR; MISHRA, R. R.The present study aimed at analysing the profitability in shrimp farming and factors affecting shrimp production in Balasore district of Odisha. The study is principally based on primary data which was collected from 120 sample shrimp farmers from four blocks namely, Baleswar, Bahanaga, Baliapal and Remuna. The study revealed that majority of the respondents belonged to mature age group of 31-50 years (68.00 per cent) and used their own land for shrimp farming. A larger proportion of the families were nuclear (55 per cent) and small sized (41.67 per cent). Among the various caste groups, castes like general (33.33 per cent) and OBC (40 per cent) were observed to be mostly involved in shrimp farming. Most of the respondents were educated up to secondary (36.67 per cent) and higher secondary (28.33 per cent) level. Nearly half of the respondents (47.50 per cent) had an experience of 5 – 10 years in white-leg shrimp farming. Most of the respondents followed the occupation mix-IV (37.50 per cent) which comprised occupations like shrimp farming, non-shrimp aquaculture and agriculture. Income from Shrimp farming was found to constitute 50-60 per cent of the household income and its share decreased with increasing size of holding. Experts of private companies were major source of technical information and commission agents were major source of credit. Farmers in the study area were observed to be practicing shrimp farming intensively (71.67 per cent) and semi-intensively (28.33 per cent). The estimated value of the initial capital required for starting shrimp farming business in one hectare area was around₹640166.50 and it was ₹ 725762.47 for small farmers, ₹ 64389.90 for medium farmers and ₹ 531437.67 for large farmers. Total cost incurred during crop 1 (Mar-June) was enumerated as₹1270739.26 per hectare and it was ₹ 1293792.78 per hectare, ₹ 1319872.01 per hectare and ₹ 1140039.30 per hectare for small, medium and large farmers respectively. However, the same for them in crop 2 (June-Sep) was₹1417079.86 for all farmers and it was ₹1469059.10 per hectare, ₹ 1463365.14 per hectare and ₹ 1258288.93 per hectare for small, medium and large farmers respectively. Gross income earned by shrimp farmers by culturing crop 1 in one hectare of land was found to be₹1856201.91 and it was ₹188331.14 for small farmers, ₹2000131.98 for medium farmers and ₹1711364 for large farmers respectively. In case of crop 2, overall gross income earned by shrimp farmers was ₹1693655.53 per hectare and that was ₹1726732.05 per hectare, ₹1721822.77 per hectare and ₹1619558.77 per hectare for small, medium and large farmers respectively. Benefit cost Ratio (BCR) on the basis of total cost was estimated to be 1.46 for crop 1 and 1.20 for crop 2 which indicated that both the crops are profitable. The study further revealed that factors like age, level of education of farmer, stocking density, quantity of supplementary feed used and survival rate positively and significantly affected level of shrimp production. It was observed from the study that inputs such as post-larvae and supplementary feed were underutilized and other inputs like labour, capital investment and expenditure on fertilizer and chemicals were over-utilized. Outbreak of disease and higher cost of inputs were major production constraints faced by farmers. However, fluctuation in the price of shrimp and difficulty in getting credit support from financial institutions were major marketing and financial constraints.ThesisItem Open Access AN ECONOmIC ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF ARECANUT IN TUMKUR DISTRICT KARNATAKA(DRPCAU, PUSA, 2021) B N, MALATHESH; Kumar, AmalenduThe present study aims at studying an economic analysis of production and marketing of arecanut in the district of Tumkur (Karnataka). The primary data was obtained from 120 farmers spread under 9 selected villages of three taluks on the basis of higher acreage under arecanut cultivation. The study also utilized data of 30 intermediaries like traders, pre-harvest contractors, wholesalers, processors, cooperatives, itinerant traders and retailers from three selected taluks of Tumkur district of Karnataka by conducting interviews with individual respondents. Multistage type of sampling was used to select the ultimate sample and the data required were collected based on the records and recalls of the sampled respondents. The compound annual growth rate of arecanut area in Karnataka as well as India has encountered a positive rate of growth which was 2.1595 and 1.3040 respectively. The growth rate was statistically significant in Karnataka as well as India at 5% level of significance. The compound growth rate for production was observed 3.1744 and 2.2235 in Karnataka and India in the same order and was statistically significant in both the cases at 5% level of significance. The compound annual growth rate of Productivity (kgs/ha) registered an increasing and positive growth rate with 0.9955 and was statistically significant at 5% level of significance in Karnataka and 0.9076 in India which was statistically significant at 5% level. The study finds that in the state and country the arecanut area, production and productivity registered positive growth rate. The analysis of costs and returns reveals that the cost of establishment consists an initial investment in the first year and various fixed costs and Variable costs involved during the gestation period (upto fifth year from planting). The total cost of establishment borne by small, semi-medium and medium farms were Rs.7,83,925.36/- per ha, Rs.8,21,516.80/- and Rs.8,71,610.18/- per ha in the same order. The investment was somewhat higher in medium plantation (Rs.8,71,610.18/- per hectare) than small plantation (Rs.7,83,925.36/- per hectare). The total annual cost of maintenance of arecanut plantation was worked out Rs.2,86,487.95/- per hectare, Rs.2,80,184.43/- per hectare and Rs.2,83,719.86/- per hectare in the same order for small, semi-medium and medium arecanut plantation farm. The NPV on small plantation was found (Rs.16,72,097/-per ha) which was more than the semi-medium (Rs.11,55,033/-per ha) and medium (Rs.9,56,872.7/-per ha) plantation. It might be because of the higher realization of returns in case of small plantations with compared to other farms. The IRR on medium plantation recorded (16 %) was lesser than semi-medium (17.15%) and medium plantation (18%). The lending rate in banks are usually 10 per cent (commercial banks) for the long-term loans and the IRR was found to be greater than the lending rate in all the three types of gardens which depicted that arecanut enterprise had a good repayment capacity in the long run. The analysis established the relationship between higher the rate of return higher the investment and vice versa. The Benefit-cost ratio was worked out and seen to be 1.56, 1.51 and 1.50 in case of small, semi-medium and medium farmers but higher return again observed in case of small farmers. On the basis of analysis concluded that small garden owners gained more from the investment on the arecanut plantation than that of other sampled categories of farmers. The Pay back period was found to be 7.67 years,7.76 years and 8.60 years in case of small, semi-medium and medium plantation. Majorly three marketing channels were observed in the study area. The farmers sold their produce to the traders, cooperatives and the pre harvest contractors in first, second and third channel respectively. For Per quintal of arecanut, the producer’s share in consumers rupee was observed highest in case of channel 2(50.26%) as compared to channel 1 (47.79%) and channel 3(41.22) and the price spread was noticed to be maximum in channel 3 (Rs.48,468.76/-) than channel 1(Rs.42,524.41/-) and channel 2 (Rs.39,552.82/-). In the value addition aspect, the processors are the major actors with incurred highest cost for the areca nut value addition. The major constraints faced by the growers in arecanut cultivation was erratic supply of electricity with 66.17 Garrett mean score, followed by non-availability of skilled labours during peak season, high initial investment, demand on high wage rate, water scarcity, high cost of inputs, poor knowledge on improved varieties and poor knowledge on pest and disease management with mean score of 59.54, 54.04, 48.35, 46.88, 43.60, 41.59 and 39.81 respectively. The prime constraint faced by the growers in marketing aspects was high intervention of middlemen with Garrett mean score of 60.75 and the constraint encountered by the market intermediaries are commercial grading and cleaning with the mean score of 62.25. The overall analysis indicates that some of the constraints are powerful barriers in production and marketing as reported by the sampled respondents.
