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Central Agricultural University, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Umiam
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ThesisItem Open Access Isolation and characterization of tissue specific promoter from Pigeon pea(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-12) Verma, Satish Kumar M.; Tyagi, WrichaPigeon pea belongs to legume family which has a specific physiology including organs like nodule and pod. The understanding of genes/transcripts involved in development of various organs of pigeon pea is limited. The present study was conducted to identify tissue specific transcripts from pigeon pea by ortholog-based approach and to isolate and characterize 5'UTR region of tissue specific transcript(s) from pigeon pea. An in silico search was conducted using phytozyme database and plant transcription factor database (PTFDB) separately for four tissues viz, seed, flower, leaf and pod. A total numberof 39 putative transcription factors (TFs) belonging to 18 different TFs families were identified for pod. The highest numbers of transcripts were observed for GATA and C2H2 (Cys (2) His (2)) zinc finger family members, and similarly, 54 TFs belonging to16 different TFs families were identified for flower tissue. Higher transcript numbers were observed for MYB (Myelobastosis), MIKC (MADS Intervening K-box Cterminal) family. Likewise, a total number of 92 TFs belonging to 28 different TFs families were identified for leaf tissues. In this case the highest number of TFs belonged to C2H2 and NAC (No Apical Meristem CUC domain) containing families. Similarly, a total number of 23 TFs with 12 different TFs families were identified expressing in seed were like MYB, NAC. Based on in silico analysis 10 transcription factors for each of the four tissues were identified. Out of the 10 transcription families (36280, 13238, 20528, 25279, 13634, 00220, 11572, 11926, 13354, 19191) identified for seed specific expression, five (00220, 11572, 11926, 13354, 19191) were targeted for RT-PCR using five different tissues (seed, flower, leaf, pod and stem). Simultaneously, members of auxin and TCP transcription family were also targeted for validation. Internal gene for studying tissue specificity in pigeon pea was identified as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). This gene was selected based on RT-PCR of ß-actin (ACT), (GAPDH), ubiquitin family (UBI), elongation factor 1-A (EF1A) and ß-tubulin (TUB) on five different tissues (seed, flower, leaf, pod and stem). Our RT-PCR data led to conformation of 2 transcripts, 00220 and 11572 as seed specific pigeon pea transcripts. While 00220 is a member of MADS (MCM1/AGAMOUS/ DEFIEIENS/SRF) transcription family,11572 is a member of TALE (Three Amino acid Loop Extension) transcription family.Thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR (TAIL PCR) approach led to identification of 229 bp 5' UTR (Untranslated Region) of 00220 transcript. Upon sequencing and analysis using Plant CARE database presence of cis-acting elements like ARE,CAAT-box, G-box, GT1-motif, Skn-1 motif, and TATA-box was detected, three unnamed motifs were also identified at -10 and -66 position. The transcripts identified and putative promoter isolated in this study after further characterization might generate useful information regarding development in pigeon pea.ThesisItem Open Access Molecular mapping for low light intensity tolerance using the contrasting rice genotypes of Eastern India(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-05) Dutta, Suvendhu Sekhar; Rai, MayankRice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important cereal crop of the Eastern and North-Eastern India. Low light induced problems include high tiller mortality at vegetative stage, reduction in spikelet number, spikelet sterility and reduced dry matter production. A set of contrasting genotypes in the NEHR mini core set during kharif-2014 and a set of 110 rice genotypes from different parts of eastern India were screened for low light intensity tolerance during kharif-2015. Total grain yield, spikelet fertility, biological yield, number of effective panicles, specific leaf weight and chlorophyll content were found to be the key traits response to low light intensity (30 % less than normal). A panel of forty six genotypes made up of top twenty three tolerant and susceptible genotypes each, based on field screening in kharif-2015 along with previously reported checks (Swarnaprabha- tolerant and IR 8-suceptible) was used for mapping study. By using the online rice databases, a set of ninety eight genes previously reported for light response were identified, which was then narrowed down to twenty. Molecular markers (forty five HvSSRs and newly designed twenty eight gene based primers) were used for molecular mapping for low light intensity tolerance. Standardization of these seventy three primers in a set of eight contrasting genotypes led to identification of fifteen HvSSR and two gene based polymorphic (CAU-CG-ILA1-3 and CAU-CG-RK3) primers. These polymorphic primers were run on the mapping panel. Marker-trait association studies based on t test and regression analysis revealed seven HvSSR and one gene based markers associated with the key traits viz., HvSSR01-66, HvSSR02-54 and CAU-CG-ILA1-3 with grain yield, HvSSR02-52, HvSSR06-56, HvSSR06-69 and HvSSR09-45 with spikelet fertility and with biological yield HvSSR02-44, HvSSR02-52, HvSSR06-69, HvSSR09-45. Expression analysis for the genes used for mapping (LGD1, PNH1, ILA1, CAB2R and LP2) was performed on a panel of eight contrasting rice genotypes grown under normal light and low light intensity (75 % of ambient) at two time points (one hour and two days). Relative expression of the five selected genes in the leaf next to flag leaf showed that there was significant down regulation of transcripts after one hour of low light treatment insusceptible genotypes for genes LGD1 and PNH1, whereas the transcript levels were maintained in tolerant genotypes. Transcription was significantly down regulated and up regulated, respectively for ILA1 and LP2 genes specifically in tolerant genotypes under one hour low light treatment. However, no significant differences in gene expression levels for the five genes were observed after two days of stress treatment for tolerant and susceptible genotypes. The genotypes and markers associated with traits identified in this study, after further evaluation, can be used to develop more productive rice varieties for low light affected regions.ThesisItem Open Access Crop diversification and its impact on farming households of Manipur: a micro-level study(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-11) Aheibam, Monika; Singh, RamDiversification of crops towards high value crop is no more a novel concept to the farming communities of the landlocked state Manipur. It is often suggested as a viable solution to stabilize and raise farm income, increase employment opportunities, nutritional security, conserve and enhance natural resource base when combined with the comparative advantage of the region. Taking into consideration, the gains associated with crop diversification, the present study analyzed the extent; identify the factors and impact of crop diversification at household level. A sample of total 200 households were selected from four villages of Kakching C.D. block, Thoubal district and five villages of Ukhrul C.D. block, Ukhrul district using PPS. Simpson Index of diversification was used to find out the extent of crop diversification while Tobit model was adopted to identify the factors influencing crop diversification. Heckman Sample Selection Model was used to estimate the impact of crop diversification on household’s food and nutritional security. The study found that about 58 per cent of the total households in Thoubal district had high level of crop diversification followed by medium level while in case Ukhrul district about 41 per cent of the total households exhibit high level of crop diversification followed by low level. The significant factors that drive households’ decision to diversify crop in Thoubal district were farm size, dependency ratio, availability of tools and machineries, access to fertilizer, availability of HYV or improved seeds, access to irrigation facility, farming information and market distance whereas, in Ukhrul district, age of the household head, family size, education of the household head, access to plough, access to farming information, training attended and market distance were the significant drivers affecting crop diversification. The study also found that households with sample average characteristics who selects into diversification secures 4.36 per cent higher food security than a household drawn at random from the population with the average set of characteristics. But challenges like labour shortage, inadequate availability of inputs, lack of irrigation facility, proper storage, and marketing facility which will favor or increase crop diversification are still prevalent in different regions of the state due to varied topographical and climatic difference within the state. Hence, improvement of infrastructure (regulated markets, storage, roads) as high value crops are perishable in nature, distinctive location specific inputs, infrastructures and extension services can enhance crop diversification at household level.ThesisItem Open Access Marker assisted selection of transgressive segregants in rice carrying favourable alleles for P-deficiency and submergence tolerance under acidic low land soils(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-04) Kumar, Shiva; Rai, MayankRice (Oryza sativa L., 2n= 2x= 24) is affected by several biotic and abiotic stresses (constraints) in North-Eastern region of India. More than 95% area in the North Eastern Hill Region is affected by soil acidity and frequently prone to flash floods. P deficiency and submergence are therefore, two of the most prevalent stresses in the region. As markers and donors for tolerance to these stresses have been identified, they were used in the present study to generate and select transgressive segregants carrying desired alleles for traits of interest. Four biparental crosses (Shasarang x Kasaltah, Shasarang x Samba mashuri-sub1, Lal jangli x Sahbhagi Dhan, Lal jangli x Priya) were established. Generated F2 populations were evaluated under lowland acidic soils during 2014 and total of 52 transgressive segregants from four F2 populations were selected, harvested individually and carried forwarded to F3 generation, along with Single Seed Descent (SSD) from each F2 population. The 52 F3 families along with SSD progenies were evaluated in Kharif, 2015 for different agronomic traits to obtain response to selection and heritability estimates. Simultaneously, in each generation, phenotypically selected lines were subjected to marker assisted selection for Sub1 and Pup1 loci in respective progenies. The F3 progeny showed significant positive regression on their selected F2 parents for grain yield, plant height, Panicles length and harvest index indicating the effectiveness of selection for these traits in early segregating generation. But, with respect to days to 50% flowering, Tiller no. at 30 days, tiller no. at 60 days, panicle number, spikelet fertility, biological yield and test weight, non-significant regression in F3 generation was observed. This Indicated the direct selection for these characters during early generation (F2) may not be effective. Significant response to selection for grain yield was observed for all the crosses, ranging from 22 to 35 per cent over F2 mean. Four selected F3 families of the cross Shasarang x Samba mashuri-sub1 viz. ULRC 29-1 and ULRC 29-15, ULRC29-115 and ULRC-170 were found to be homozygous for submergence tolerance. In case of the cross Shasarang x Kasaltah, F3 families ULRC24-30 and ULRC 24-48 were identified as carrying both, K46-1 and K46-2, while ULRC24-4 family was positive for K46-2 and PR1-2 for tolerant Pup1 alleles. Seedlings of selected F4 families were subjected to submergence and hydroponic screening (under P deficient condition) for trait validation. Under hydroponics ULRC 24-99-1 was found to be performing consistently for shoot length, root length, fresh shoot weight and fresh root weight under both control and treatment conditions. Lines ULRC 24-99-1, ULRC 33-57-1 showed higher amount of P uptake in association with phosphorous use efficiency (PUE) under P deficient conditions. On the other hand, majority of the lines selected from cross Shasarang x Samba mashuri-sub1 showed equal level of tolerance to the donor for submergence tolerance. The study highlights the feasibility, importance and effectiveness of MAS in early segregating generations, which led to identification of transgressive progenies with desired genotypic and phenotypic constitution. These lines, once stable may be tested at multiple locations can be released directly as variety to enhance the productivity in the NEH region and can also serve as potential donors in future breeding programs aimed at developing improved cultivars with desirable agronomic traits in acidic lowland rice ecosystems.ThesisItem Open Access Understanding molecular biology of acidity tolerance in rice: a casestudy of Phosphorous (P) deficiency and Iron (Fe2+) toxicity tolerance in Shasharang(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2016-09) Das, Sudip; Tyagi, WrichaP is one of the macronutrients required for plant growth and development, whereas Fe is a micronutrient required for various metabolic functions of plant. However, under acidic soil condition, due to low pH Fe2+ toxicity and P deficiency occurs leading to decrease in crop productivity. The molecular mechanism underlying the Fe toxicity and P deficiency tolerance in rice is not well understood. Therefore, current study was undertaken to identify the novel loci for Fe2+ toxicity and P deficiency tolerance using bi-parental population derived from the cross between a tolerant donor Shasharang (LR 11) and a susceptible recipient (KMR 3) genotype. The phenotypic data in terms of tolerance basis under lowland acidic soil condition and hydroponics, suggests that LR 11 was the most tolerant genotype out of four genotypes (KMR 3, LR 15 nd LR 60) used in our study in support. Positive and negative correlation was obtained for various traits upon evaluation of 225 F2 progeny derived from cross between KMR 3 and LR 11, at 1 and 5% level of significance. Positive correlation was found between tiller numbers at 60 days with plant dry weight (PDW) (0.642) and panicle number (PN) (0.984). PDW was positively correlated with PN (0.667) and filled grains per panicle (FGPP) (0.295). Bronzing score at 60 DAT (BS 60) was positively correlated with bronzing score at 110 DAT (BS110) (0.454). Interestingly, BS60 was negatively correlated with Fe content (0.21) at 5% level of significance. P content was positively correlated with P uptake (0.572) and negatively correlated with P use efficiency (PUE) and Fe content at both the levels of significance, respectively. P uptake was positively correlated with PUE (0.398) and Fe uptake (0.557) but negatively correlated with Fe content (-0.41). PUE was positively correlated with Fe uptake (0.623), Fe content with Fe uptake (0.619) at both 5% and 1% level of significance. Number of tillers at 60 days, plant dry weight, and number of panicles per plant showed significant positive correlation with grain yield per plant. Out of total of 377 SSR markers and 60 candidate gene based primers run on the parents, LR11 and KMR 3, eight and 60 candidate gene based and HvSSR markers, respectively were found to be polymorphic. Marker trait association study revealed significant association of five markers i.e. HvSSR06-46, HvSSR08-17, and HvSSR11-25, HvSSR05-12, HvSSR08-35 with PUE uptake at P value between 0.9-0.95. HvSSR03-26, HvSSR06-46, HvSSR06-54, HvSSR08-14, HvSSR08-35 and HvSSR12-08, were found to be correlated with PUE with r values ≥ 0.3. However, three markers, namely HvSSR01-47, HvSSR07-09 and HvSSR11-23 with P value between 0.9-0.95 were associated for PUP. HvSSR07-09, HvSSR11-12, and PR062-3 contributing for LR 11 and HvSSR08-17 and HvSSR10-21 for KMR 3 for the trait PUP. HvSSR06-09 with Fe content was found to be highly significant, whereas, HvSSR03-26, HvSSR09-30 and FR032-3 were less significantly associated with probability value between 0.9-0.95 for the trait Fe content. LR 11 alleles for three markers namely HvSSR03-26, HvSR11-27 and HvSSR12-08 were found to be associated with high Fe content in flag leaf, whereas, for HvSSR08-14 and HvSSR10-27, KMR 3 alleles showed association with high Fe content. These markers could be used for molecular assisted breeding programme for Fe2+ toxicity tolerance as well as P deficiency tolerance after further validation. Under Fe (II) toxic conditions, OsYSL16 was upregulated in shoots in susceptible genotype (KMR 3) and downregulated in roots of tolerant genotype (LR 11). OsNAS3 was downregulated in shoots in susceptible genotype under Fe(II) toxic conditions.Whereas, transcription factors OsIRO3 and OsIRO2 were downregulated in shoots of susceptible genotype and expressed only in shoots of tolerant genotypes, respectively. This study, therefore, suggests that genes reported for iron deficiency tolerance can be potential targets for enhancing rice production under P deficiency and iron toxicity field conditions. Our data also suggests that maintaining Fe homeostasis under Fe toxicity and P deficiency conditions as shown by the genotype, LR 11, could be vital to better performance under poor soil conditions.ThesisItem Open Access Seed priming of pea (Pisum sativum L.) and residual soil moisture conservation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) fallow(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-01) Devi, Yanglem Sofia; Ram, VishramTo increase overall cropping intensity and system efficiency in the NEH region, feasible farmer friendly and sustainable agro-technologies are in the urgent need. In this regard, cropping sequencing and soil moisture conservation (SMC) practices are pertinent to validate in field conditions under climate change scenario. Seed priming is one of the promising easy and adoptable techniques to enhance the productivity and efficiency required for today’s NE farmers. The present laboratory and field investigation was conducted at College of Post Graduate Studies Experimental Farm, Central Agricultural University and ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam (Meghalaya) during kharif- rabi seasons of 2014- 15 and 2015 - 16, respectively. The study entitled “Seed priming of pea (Pisum sativum L.) and residual soil moisture conservation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) fallow” with a view to bring out suitable technology to increase the yield potential and system productivity of rice -pea sequence under rice fallow particularly with different moisture conservation practices and seed invigoration techniques. Firstly, standardisation laboratory bioassay was undertaken with three different pea cultivars viz., Imported - 121 (V1), GS - 10 (V2) and I - 10 (V3) and nine different priming substances including hydropriming . Germination related and physio -biochemical traits viz., germination percentage, seed mobilization efficiency and coefficient of germination were found significantly higher in cultivar I - 10 (V3). H owever, it found at par with V2 (GS- 10) in coefficient of germination. Mean germination time was early in V1 (I- 121) and germination rate was noticed faster in cultivar I - 10. Significantly higher germination parameters were observed at both concentration of the seed priming substances viz., PEG, ZnSO4, H2O2, KH2PO4 and Bio extract - 2 than the rest of the treatments. Biochemical parameters (protein, protease, amylase and lipase enzymes activity) revealed significantly better performance of seed priming with KH2PO4, PEG, H2O2 and ABA as compare to other treatments. As overall, varieties V2and V3 outperformed other varieties in most of the measured germination parameters. In addition, two pot culture experiments assessed with field soil were carried out at controlled (Plant growth chamber) and field conditions for detailed study of morpho- physiological and advanced stress adaptive mechanisms along with yield performance of pea cultivar and seed priming substances. In controlled experiment, the performance of selected priming substances and cultivars were tested with water stress for a period of 60 days. Several growth and physiological parameters documented at 30 and 60 DAS. From the experiment it canbe concluded that although hydro priming relatively performed well but it was subsequent to the priming substances H2O2 (10mM), KH2PO4 (1.5%) , ABA (2µM) and PEG(5%), which were significantly outperformed in inducing higher growth with positive physiological changes. Another pot experiment conducted with factorial RBD design and filled with field soil from rice fallows under ambient condition carried out with four moisture regimes and selected best performing four priming substances including control. Plant biometric parameters (plant height, number of functional leaves , total dry matter etc. ), reproductive parameters (nodes at 1st flower appearance, days to flowering and pod morphology), physiological parameters (SPAD index, chlorophyll and relative water content, root morphological parameters , stomatal frequency and its index , proline and MDA content) and yield parameters (number of pods plant-1, length of pods, number of seed pod-1, weight of green pods, shelling%, seed index, biological yield and harvest index) were recorded .These observations indicated that the irrigation up to 7 days interval showed that the pea cultivar did not experience any moisture stress was sufficient for higher growth , development and normal yield compare to 15 days interval watering whereas, seed priming showed its advantage in inducing and enhancing plant growth and yield attributes. However, among the seed priming substances KH2PO4and ABA observed significant with better performance in crop followed by H2O2. After all, two years of consecutive field experiment ation conducted with six sowing methods along with three seed priming’s in having split plot which replicated thrice to study the performance of selected pea cultivar and seed priming (H2O2 @ 10mM and KH2PO4@ 1.5%) under rice-fallow. Among seed priming both seed priming substances performed better than without priming. However, among different sowing method treatment sowing at 15 days before harvesting of rice by dibbling method (S1) and sowing at 15 days after harvest of rice with 30% of crop residue by dibbling method (S5) gave better result than rest of the other treatments. Photo- thermal behaviors and other micrometeorological parameters viz., APAR, GDD and LUE were positively correlated with moisture conservation practices up to flowering stage. Similar trends were found with growth and yield parameters. Utera and timely sown crop utilizes light energy and accumulated heat units efficiently to alter the developmental stages for producing higher yields than late sowing. However, under late sown conditions mulching is practicable and advisable for increasing growth and development which leads to better yield than conventional practices. Finally the early and timely sown pea with conservation practices i.e., mulching through residue retention improves the economic return and system productivity of rice -fallow with diversification with pea.ThesisItem Open Access Jhumias of Manipur in North-East India: a livelihood analysis(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-09) P., Punitha; Chauhan, J. K.Shifting cultivation also known as Jhum practised predominantly by North East Indian farmers. The people who practise Jhum are called as Jhumias. Due to the ill effects of Jhum cultivation, since 1950s, various schemes were implemented by Government of India to eradicate Jhum. The latest scheme completed was Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Area (WDPSCA).This study endeavours to explore, to what extent the level of attachment the Jhumias have towards Jhum as a livelihood, to what extent the Jhumias depend on other source of livelihood, factors affecting it and their constraints in diversification of livelihood. Keeping in view the above consideration the present research had been conducted with the objectives viz., to assess the place attachment of Jhumias towards Jhum as a livelihood, to analyse the livelihood diversification of Jhumias, to prioritise the constraints in livelihood diversification. Mixed method research design and multistage sampling technique was used in this study. Out of total 240 respondents selected for the study, 80 respondents were selected from WDPSCA and 160 respondents were selected from Non - WDPSCA. Place attachment scale with eighteen statements was developed to assess the place attachment of Jhumias towards Jhum as a livelihood. Simpson Diversity of Index was used to measure the level of livelihood diversification. The chi-square, correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the factors influencing livelihood diversification. The Garrett ranking technique were used to prioritise the constraints in livelihood diversification. The study revealed that majority (57%) of the respondents were found to exhibit medium level of place attachment towards Jhum as a livelihood. Analysis of livelihood diversification revealed that majority (60%) of respondents in WDPSCA found to exhibit low level of livelihood diversification where as in Non-WDPSCA majority (49.37%) of respondents found to exhibit medium level of livelihood diversification. 86.30 per cent and 73.80 per cent of respondents in WDPSCA and Non-WDPSCA respectively had farm as a primary livelihood source. Jhum income constitute the highest income source among the farm income in WDPSCA and Non-WDPSCA. The multiple linear regression analysis on the factors affecting livelihood diversification revealed that the overall model was fit with 'f' value significant at 1 percent level with R2 value of 0.364. The number of livestocks, training attended on farm activities were negatively affected the livelihood diversification at 1 per cent and 5 percent level of significance respectively. Market distance was positively affected the livelihood diversification at 1 per cent level of significance. Distance to Jhum field, distance to district head quarter, Jhum size was negatively affected the livelihood diversification at 1 per cent level of significance. 'Lack of market access' were the foremost infrastructural constraint expressed by the respondents of WDPSCA and Non-WDPSCA. 'Primary livelihood activities not leaving enough time to pursue diversification strategies' followed by inadequate experience in expected livelihood activity were the social constraint expressed by WDPSCA and 'lack of role model entrepreneur in my village' were the social constraint expressed in Non-WDPSCA. Less high yielding varieties for Jhum land were the technological constraint expressed by both WDPSCA and Non-WDPSCA. Livestock activities in a larger scale, off-farm agribusiness activities, common market place for cluster of villages for Jhumias can be promoted. Soil health and water management measures, problems in management of fruits, vegetables and spices should be identified, prioritised and disseminated by KVK, ICAR, CAU to the Jhumias of Manipur.ThesisItem Open Access Social networks of agricultural stakeholders on climate-smart agriculture in Meghalaya: a structural equation modelling(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-12) Dympep, Alethea; Singh, Rajkumar JoshmeeClimate change has already significantly impacted agriculture and is expected to further impact directly and indirectly food production. Agriculture however is not just a victim of climate change; it is directly responsible for 10–12% of human-generated greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, to increase agricultural production without further increasing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural activities, ‘climate-smart agriculture’ (CSA) has been introduced. The scaling up of CSA practices will require appropriate institutional and governance mechanisms and understanding of individual behavioral intention to adopt CSA, to disseminate information, ensure broad participation and harmonize policies. Therefore, considering the above facts, the present study was conceptualized with the following objectives: (1) To identify social networks of agricultural stakeholders on performing climate-smart agriculture. (2) To analyze the mitigative and adaptive competency of identified social networks apropos of climate-smart agriculture. (3) To develop a structural equation model fitting climate-smart hill agriculture. (4) To advocate strategies on successful implementation of the recommendations on climate-smart hill agriculture. The hill state, Meghalaya, in which the three agro-climatic zones (ACZs) of the state were, selected purposively. Out of which one most agriculturally vulnerable Community and Rural Development (C&RD) block to climate change was selected from each ACZs. Following snowball sampling, ‘n’ agricultural stakeholders were identified and a cluster of 4 villages from each classified CRDB were selected. 180 farmers were randomly selected from the respective CRDB. In the Tropical ACZ, five stakeholders involved in climate change were identified of which NGOs were found to be the key stakeholder while in Sub-tropical and Temperate ACZ, thirteen stakeholders and eleven stakeholder were identified in which ICAR(NICRA) and DoP&ED, GoM were found to be the most important stakeholder in the ACZs respectively. On analyzing the social network of the stakeholders, Farmers in Tropical ACZ, GIZ in Sub-tropical ACZ and both Farmers and GIZ in Temperate zone were found to be the central actors in the network. DoA, GoM & KVK and m4agriNEI of CoHSc, Tura & NGOs were found to be structurally equivalent in Temperate ACZ while no structural equivalence was found between the stakeholders in Sub-tropical and Temperate ACZ. The cohesive density of farmers was found to highest in Tropical ACZ followed by in Sub-tropical and Temperate ACZ. No significant difference was found on the mitigative and adaptative competency level of the identified social networks of agricultural stakeholders in all the three ACZs.Using multinomial logistic regression, independent variables- age, landholding, social cohesiveness, cosmopoliteness, communication behaviour, subjective norms, risk perception and knowledge of CSA practices were found to significantly affect competency level of the farmers. Structural equation modeling was applied and a structural path model was developed in which exogenous variables-perceived adaptive capacity and subjective norms were found to be positively influencing CSA performance of the farmers while maladaptation was observed to have a negative influence. The major constraints expressed by the farmers were the lack of profit on adapting to CSA practices and lack of government support.ThesisItem Open Access A study on impact assessment of the employment and livelihood linked programmes in Manipur.(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2016-11) Stina, Khumukcham; Devarani, L.In India, despite the impressive growth rates, poverty and unemployment remains widespread and deeply entrenched, especially in the rural areas. Among development schemes to eradicate poverty, generate employment and establish livelihood security implemented by the Government of India (GOI), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) are having special characteristics as these are employment and livelihood linked programmes targeting at reduction of rural poverty through provision of employment. The study was conducted in Imphal East and Churachandpur districts, to assess the impact of these employment and livelihood programmes so as to gain more comprehension on how far this flagship programmes, been able to comply with the promises made during their introduction. A total of 185 respondents comprising of 50 MGNREGA beneficiaries, 50 SGSY beneficiaries, 50 beneficiaries of both the programmes and 35 non beneficiaries were selected based on PPS. Data for the study consists of secondary data collected from various sources as well as primary data obtained from the respondents. For MGNREGA, though the demand for work was found increasing and the fund utilisation high, the percentage of work completed was low. The number of person days generated was also low on an average 46 days in Imphal East and 79 days in Churachandpur district. For SGSY, the financial utilization percentage was (86.55%) in Imphal East and (76.43%) in Churachandpur and physical performances were found to be in accordance with the fund having awareness. Majority of the beneficiaries had medium level of awareness on their respective programmes with many respondents not having awareness of basic provisions of the programmes. No significant change was observed in income level of the beneficiaries after MGNREGA, however, SGSY have contribute a significant increase in income of the respondents by 39.64%. In case of saving, all the beneficiaries have opened saving accounts in banks, however, they prefer saving in the informal saving groups rather than on banks. Significant changes were observed in expenditure pattern and material possession of the beneficiaries with the respondents under SGSY beneficiaries reporting highest positive change. No significant difference in extent of cosmopoliteness was observed among the different categories indicating that the programmes have insignificant impact on the level of cosmopoliteness of the beneficiaries. In case of livelihood security and empowerment, significant improvement was observed for the beneficiaries as compared with before joining the programme and with the non-beneficiaries. Overall, the impact on the beneficiaries of both the programmes and beneficiaries of SGSY were observed to be more favourable than that of MGNREGA beneficiaries. Non availability of 100 days of work, late payment of wages, under payment of wages, non-availability of tools and worksite facilities etc were the constraints perceived by the beneficiaries under MGNREGA. The constraints perceived by the functionaries of MGNREGA were scarcity of funds and non-acceptance of labour budget and failing to upload Management Information System (MIS) report timely. Constraints as per the beneficiaries under SGSY were complicated process in getting credit, long time period in getting credit, benefits of the program not read to the needed people etc. Delay in fund allocation, sudden formation of SHGs just to, less awareness and training programme were the major constraints as per the functionaries of SGSY. Many suggestions also have been voiced by the respondents to counter the constraints, but what is important is sincerity and dedication of all concerned that, the benefits of the programmes as it is meant out to be, reach the deserving beneficiaries, which require awareness and capacity building of the beneficiaries as well as functionaries, proper monitoring, timely and efficient planning and execution.
