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ThesisItem Open Access Comparative Study on Diversity, Edaphic Features and Active Component of Acorus calamus L.: An Endangered Medicinal Plant Species of Kashmir(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Mir, Umar Ashraf; Haleema BanoPresent study was carried out during the year 2019-21 to study the “Comparative Study on Diversity, Edaphic Features and Active Component of Acorus calamus L.: An Endangered Medicinal Plant Species of Kashmir”. Highest density (4.166±0.21m2), frequency (56.743±1.70%) and abundance (7.374±0.02m2) of Acorus calamus was recorded at Shallabugh wetland which is the less disturbed site of Kashmir valley and the lowest values (1.413±0.04m2), (31.195±0.22%) and (4.984±0.01m2) were recorded at more disturbed sites of Hokersar wetland of Kashmir. At higher disturbed sites biotic stress activities like deforestation, grazing, tourism etc. is more which resulted in less vegetation cover and results less organic matter. There is significant increase in moisture content, organic carbon, available nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesium at lesser disturbed sites of Shallabugh wetland as compared to other wetlands. However, there is decreases in pH, EC, bulk density and available phosphorus in lesser disturbed site as compared to the other sites. Significantly higher values of Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn, Mn and Cd were found at higher disturbed area (Hokersar) compared to lesser disturbed area (Shallabugh). Soil analysis revealed that iron was maximum at higher disturbed site followed by copper, Manganese, Zinc, nickel, and Cadmium, with mean values of (26.56±1.12, 6.27±0.17, 5.82±0.02, 2.26±0.03, 2.19±0.05 and 1.83±0.06 mg/kg), respectively. The overall texture of all four sites was Clayey. This indicates biotic stress increases more at higher disturbed sites compared to lesser disturbed sites. The highest (34.00±0.06) Total Bacterial Count was recorded at Shallabugh wetland and lowest (11.89±0.71) was recorded at Hokersar wetland. The highest Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) population (g-1) of soil was recorded (10.56±0.29) at Shallabugh wetland (lesser disturbed site) and lowest was recorded at more disturbed sites Hokersar wetland (3.22±0.49). For the fungal strains ethanolic extract showed the highest antifungal activity against Fusarium sp. with zone of inhibition (19.7±0.29 mm) at 100 mg/ml. The antifungal activity of medicinal plant extracts of Acorus calamus was screened against the most common fungal strains which include Aspergillus sp., Alternaria sp., Penicillium sp. and Fusarium sp.. The Acorus calamus rhizome extract showed significantly positive activity against fungal strains. Morphological diversity at the phenotypic level revealed presence of 5 clusters for 40 populations; 01 populations in cluster-1, 09 (cluster-2), 10 (cluster-3), 02 (cluster-4) and 18 (cluster-5). Majority of populations got grouped in the cluster-5, followed by cluster-3. The mean inter- and intra-cluster distances (D2) values for the data reviled the maximum intra-cluster distance (D2) of (32.579) was observed in cluster -4, and the maximum inter –cluster distance (D2) of (32.579) was observed in cluster -1. The highest Oil and Asarone content were found at Shallabug wetland as compared to other wetlands.ThesisItem Open Access Isolation and Identification of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi from Mulberry Fields of Kashmir(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Shahwar Illiyas; Shoukat AraVesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae are a form of endomycorrhizae that are typified by an extensive branching network and penetration of hyphae into the roots of plants. They are formed by members of all phyla of land plants. The fungal symbionts appear to be restricted to relatively few genera in the order Glomales (Zygomycetes). These are apparently asexual organisms, with variation dependent on mutation and, possibly, on heterokaryosis. The present investigation entitled “Isolation and identification of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae from the mulberry (Morus spp.) fields of Kashmir” was carried out to study the physico-chemical parameters and isolation of VAM fungi associated with mulberricultural soils. This study was carried out in College of Temperate Sericulture (COTS), Mirgund in district Baramulla and Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Pampore in district Pulwama, covering 2 sites and 4 locations. The physico-chemical parameters confirmed that the pH of mulberry growing soils was slightly acidic to neutral (6.76-7.12). Electrical conductivity was normal in range (0.15-0.20 dS/m) with slight decrease in the fertilized soils. The moisture content was slightly low in the unfertilized soils (14.68%) as compared to the fertilized soils (17.91%). Bulk density was more in unfertilized soils (1.32 g/cm3), which decreased in the fertilized soils (0.99 g/cm3). Soil texture in both the sites was loamy. Organic carbon was minimum in unfertilized soils (1.09%) and maximum in fertilized soils (1.26%). Available contents of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were found with the mean values of 181.19, 9.35 and 226.64 kg/ha in unfertilized and 211.71, 12.59 and 244.19 kg/ha in fertilized soils respectively. Available calcium was found to be with the mean value of 425.10 mg/kg in unfertilized and 614.63 mg/kg in fertilized soils respectively. Calcium carbonate was found with the mean value of 0.18% in unfertilized and 0.28% in fertilized soils respectively. Available micronutrient cations like zinc, copper, manganese and iron were found to be maximum in the fertilized soils with the mean values of 1.65, 1.80, 61.04 and 51.58 mg/kg respectively. Four genera of VAM spores were isolated by this survey. The genera isolated were Glomus, Acaulospora, Gigaspora and Scutellospora. Glomus species were most predominant followed by Acaulospora, Gigaspora and Scutellospora species. Glomus species were present in both the locations in both the seasons as these species thrive in both acidic as well as alkaline soils. Maximum number of spores were found in unfertilized soils (9.08/g of soil) as compared to fertilized soils (8.54/g of soil) with the maximum population in spring as compared to autumn. Root colonisation of the samples was found to be highest in Mirgund with maximum percentage in unfertilized soils (36.99%) as compared to fertilized soils (33.74%) and was found maximum in spring as compared to autumn. Maximum root colonisation was shown by Glomus sp. followed by Acaulospora sp., Gigaspora sp. and Scutellospora sp. Soil phosphatase activity was found more in fertilized soils (6.51 µgP-NP/g/ha) as compared to unfertilized soils (6.31µgP-NP/g/ha) and was maximum in spring as compared to autumn. The maximum phosphorus solubilising bacteria were found in unfertilized soils with a mean value of 17.76 cfu/g as compared to fertilized soils with a mean value of 16.02 cfu/g.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative Assessment of Selected Contact Fungicides on Physiochemical and Microfloral Dynamics of Orchard Soils(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Bhat, Burgish Parveez; Bhat, Javeed Iqbal AhmadIn the present investigation (2020-2021) three contact fungicides viz; mancozeb, captan and dodine were tested at four different doses i.e. normal application rate (N)0, 10 times the normal application rate(N10), 50 times the normal application rate (N50) and 100 times the normal application rate (N100) at four incubation periods (7th day, 14th day, 21st day and 28th day) to check their effects on the physiochemical properties, enzymatic activities and microfloral dynamics of sandy loam and silt loam soils from two different districts of Kashmir valley viz; Srinagar (SKUAST-K, Shalimar) and Baramulla (Sopore) respectively. It was found that all the three fungicides at higher levels were toxic and caused a drastic reduction in the dwelling bacterial and fungal populations in both the soils, with more pronounced effect seen in dodine treated soils followed by mancozeb and captan. The greatest changes in the population of microflora were induced by the highest fungicide dose (N100) and the decline in the populations was seen more in case of fungi as compared to bacteria. The application of the fungicides also led to disruption of the enzymatic activities viz; dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, urease, amidase and protease as compared to control. In comparison to control, both the soils showed immense impact on their physiochemical properties as well, when treated with fungicides. All the physiochemical parameters viz; organic carbon, electrical conductivity and other macro and micronutrients like available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, iron, copper, manganese, zinc showed a decreasing trend except for pH, bulk density, available calcium and magnesium which were found to be increasing from N0 to N100 dose, from 7 to 28th day of incubation period. The degree of fungicidal effect however decreased with an increase in time especially from 21st to 28st day, as a little rejuvenation in the bacterial and fungal populations was observed during the same. The study depicted that the physical, chemical and microbiological properties are correlated and any kind of repercussions on one of them can cause an impact on other properties as well and all these parameters can be considered as good indicators of the fungicide’s toxic effect on the quality of soil.ThesisItem Open Access Water Quality Assessment and Change Detection in Khushalsar Lake of Kashmir Himalayas Using RS and GIS Technique(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Areeba Aijaz; Lone, Farooq AhmadThe present study was conducted from summer (September, 2021) to spring (April, 2022) to evaluate the physicochemical characteristics (viz, temperature, pH, EC, total hardness, Ca, Mg, total phosphorus, PO43 , NO3-N, DO, BOD, COD, organic carbon, available nitrogen, available phosphorus, available potassium) and heavy metals (viz. Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ni, Pb and Cd ) of water and sediment during four seasons at three sites of Khushalsar lake located in district Srinagar at a distance of about 7.1 kms far from the centre of the Srinagar city. The study also includes assessment of microbiological load and Land use Land cover of Khushalsar Lake Srinagar using remote sensing and geospatial techniques. The data exhibits that in both water and sediment except pH, the values of other parameters viz, EC (1.00 and 0.39 ds/m); Ca (148.32 mg/l and 579.3 mg/kg); Mg (86.67 mg/l and 395.60 mg/kg); total P (0.354 mg/l and 178.51 mg/kg); Cu (0.35 mg/l, and 6.87 mg/kg); Fe (0.51 mg/l and 22.48 mg/kg); Mn ( 0.81 mg/l and 5.98 mg/kg); Zn (0.40 mg/l and 3.19 mg/kg); Pb (0.08 mg/l and 4.86 mg/kg) ); Cd (0.781 mg/l and 1.96 mg/kg) and Ni (0.042 mg/l and 3.94 mg/kg) respectively were recorded higher at Khushalsar Lake during summer and autumn season compared to control site Dachigam. The data also suggests that microbial load in both water and sediment (6.08 and 9.72 CFU) respectively exhibit increased values at Khushalsar Lake (inlet) during summer season compared to other sites and seasons. Furthermore, it is evident from the data that between 1970 and 2022, the LULC change of Khushalsar Lake shows increased value for built-up (0–25%) and plantation (11.28%–29.5%). On the other hand, other classes viz, open water (26.5% - 14.64%) and marshy land (88.7% - 35.2%) exhibits a declining trend from 1970 to 2022 respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Impact of Anthropogenic Activities and Seasonal Variation on the Water Quality and Microbial Dynamics of Veshaw River of Kashmir Himalaya(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Rather, Rauoof Ahmad; Shoukat AraThe present study was aimed to assess the water quality of the Veshaw river in district Kulgam by employing microbial species as bio-monitoring and pollution indication tool in river Veshaw. In this study water samples were collected from Upstream (Kongwattan and Aharbal), Middle stream (Nihama and Kulgam), Downstream (Khudwani and Sangam) for the quality assessment and microbial identification. The water samples were collected during the year 2019-2021 from six selected locations within each site in the spring, summer, autumn and winter season. The physico-chemical parameters of water revealed significant spatial and temporal variations. The mean stream discharge was high in the spring and registered a decreasing trend downstream. Similar trend was observed for the flow velocity which indicates decreasing trend to the downstream. Water temperature displayed significant downstream increase due to less canopy density and more open area in the lower reaches. The mean values of pH, EC and turbidity increased significantly downstream with high concentrations during the summer, spring and autumn seasons owing to high mineralization rate of organic waste, lean water flow and subsurface flow. DO was low in the summer season and registered decreasing trend downstream due to the increasing organic load which was confirmed by its inverse relationship with BOD, COD and temperature. The mean BOD and COD values were high in summer and increased significantly downstream. These parameters indicate the β-mesosaprobic (moderately polluted) to β-α-mesosaprobic (critically polluted) nature of water in the lower reaches due to extensive anthropogenic inputs. Total hardness (TH), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) revealed the significant increasing trend downstream with high concentration in the summer season due to lean discharge, high subsurface flow, high metabolic rate and varied catchment area. Hardness revealed the soft nature of water in the upper reaches and hard water in the lower reaches due to more geological inputs and anthropogenic pressure in the downstream catchment zone. Nutrients including orthophosphate and nitrate nitrogen maintained significant downward increasing trend with higher concentrations in the summer season due to the extensive agricultural activities in the catchment zone and higher metabolic rate of microorganisms. The comparison of the water quality parameters with the Indian drinking water quality standards depicted the concentrations of EC, turbidity, total hardness, magnesium and the potassium above permissible limits at Downstream (Sangam). The dominance pattern of heavy metals in water was Zn > Fe > Cu> Pb > As > Cd. The overall trend showed downward increase of heavy metals indicating the effect of land area drainage and anthropogenic activities on the stream water. The results showed significant variation in water quality measures, indicating increased pollution levels downstream. The Coliform showed the increasing trend downstream of the river with summer. A metagenomic study found 27 species that had different relative abundances. These species include Escherichia coli strain Rather Veshaw61, Escherichia coli strain Rather Veshaw68- 80, Escherichia fergusonii strain Rather Veshaw1-8, Escherichia albertii strain Rather Veshaw9, Klebsiella grimontii strain Rather Veshaw10, Klebsiella grimontii strain Rather Veshaw11, Klebsiella grimontii strain Rather Veshaw12 and Shigella dysenteriae strain Rather Veshaw13. This study is the first to discriminate against Escherichia fergusonii, E. albertii, Klebsiella grimontii, and Shigella dysenteriae from E. coli, and the pollution indicating Coliforms in river and a new report on E. fergusonii and E. albertii, Klebsiella grimontii and Shigella dysenteriae in Veshaw river in Kulgam. The bacterial species identified in this study through 16S rRNA gene amplification and sequencing belong the phylum Pseudomonadota, Actinomycetota and Bacillota. The majority identified species belong to phylum Pseudomonadota followed by Actinomycetota.The species were grouped in three clusters. Majority of species (14) fall in Cluster -1 followed by Cluster-2 with six species and cluster-1with two species. Identified fungal species from Veshaw river include 20 species belonging to Ascomycota , the dominant phylum with 18 species and the phylum Basidiomycota comprises of two species. The species were grouped in three clusters. Maximum number of species were found in Cluster-3 which include 11 species followed by Cluster-2 with eight species and cluster -1 with one species.ThesisItem Open Access Carbon stock estimation and land use land cover study of Sindh Forest Range in upper Indus basin using geospatial technology(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Mir, Rizwan Qazi; Lone, F. A.The present study was conducted in the Sindh forest range which is part of the Sindh forest division in Ganderbal, Jammu and Kashmir. The research was conducted along the three altitudinal gradients of 1800 to 2200 metres, 2200 to 2600 metres and 2600 to 3000 metres amsl. Sample plots measuring 0.1 ha (31.6 m × 31.6 m) were laid in different altitudes for tree (0.1 ha), herb (1 m × 1 m) and litter (1 m × 1 m) measurements. Three soil plots (1 m × 1 m) were also set up in each 0.1 ha sample quadrat, with three replications per soil sample. The lowest mean diameter at breast height of 0.39 m was recorded at 2600–3000 m whereas the highest mean value of 0.51 m was recorded at 2200-2600 m. The lowest recorded mean height of 19.92 m was recorded at 1800-2200 m and the highest mean height of 23.35 m at 2200-2600 m. The lowest mean diameter at breast height was (0.13 m) for Ulmus wallichiana, whereas the highest mean diameter at breast height (0.85 m) was recorded for Platanus orientalis. The lowest mean height of 10.33 m was recorded for Salix alba and the highest of 35.67 m was recorded for Abies pindrow. The maximum total biomass carbon stock (79.65 t/ha) was accumulated at 1800–2200 m and the minimum (53.66 t/ha) was recorded at 2600–3000 m. The average litter carbon concentration was highest (1.15 t/ha) at 2200–2600 m and lowest (1.05 t/ha) at 2600–3000 m. The total herb carbon was highest (0.25 t/ha) at 2200–2600 m and lowest (0.16 t/ha) at 2600–3000 m. The highest mean sand (33.15%) was recorded at 1800–2200 m, while 2200–2600 m had the lowest (26.52%). The maximum value of silt (57.59%) was obtained for 2200–2600 m and the lowest for 1800–2200 m (47.56%). The maximum value of clay was 18.93% for 1800–2200 m and the lowest for 2200–2600 m was 15.89%. The texture class was loam for 1800–2200 m, silt loam for 2200–2600 m and 2600–3000 m. The lowest bulk density was recorded at 2200–2600 m (1.27 g/cm3) and the highest at 1800–2200 m (1.41 g/cm3). The lowest soil moisture content of (21.53 %) was recorded at 1800–2200 m and the highest at 2200–2600 m (27.64 %). The highest coarse fraction of 18.96% was found in the 1800–2200 m and the lowest of 15.01% in the 2200–2600 m. The mean values of organic carbon were highest (1.68%) at 2200–2600 m and the minimum value (1.22%) at 1800–2200 m. 1800–2200 m recorded the highest pH of 6.43, whereas 2200–2600 m recorded the lowest pH of 5.97. The highest electrical conductivity of 0.35 dSm-1 was found at 1800–2200 m and the lowest value of 0.27 dSm-1 at 2200–2600 m. The maximum SOC stock of 54.66 t/ha was recorded at 2200–2600 m and the minimum SOC of 41.59 t/ha was recorded at 1800–2200 m. The highest soil CO2 mitigation density of 200.60 t/ha was recorded at 2200–2600 m and the lowest SOC stock of 152.65 t/ha was recorded at 1800–2200 m. Herb biomass shows a significant positive (r = 0.500, P< 0.05) correlation with SOC density. The total carbon stock (t/ha) was highest for the 2200–2600 m (123.31 t/ha) and lowest for the 2600–3000 m (101.27 t/ha). However, the total carbon (t/ha) stock for tree carbon, herb carbon, litter and soil was 200.58, 0.6, 3.34 and 142.57, respectively. Under carbon credit (scenario I) maximum carbon of 8.29 million US$ was recorded at 1800–2200 m. Soil carbon under (scenario I) recorded a maximum of 6.29 million US$ at 2200–2600 m. The LULC change detection shows that the maximum area decreased in the snow cover from 37392.44 ha in 1980 to 16265.48 ha in 2020 and the maximum area increased in the barren land from 6237.21 ha in 1980 to 26692.2 ha in 2020. The classified landuse/landcover statistics reveal that the maximum area is dominated by the snow, covering an area of 37392.44 ha (1980), 35942.1 ha (1990) and 22541.78 ha (2000). In 2010 and 2020, the maximum area was dominated by barren land, covering an area of 23310.53 and 26692.2 hectares, respectively. Forests were classified into five major density classes which shows that non-forest covers the maximum area of about 47809.17 ha (58.95%) and moderately dense forest had the minimum covered area of 2422.54 ha (2.99%). The overall accuracy of land use and land cover classification was 89.76%, with a kappa statistic of 0.86.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on Seasonal Variation in Soil Characteristics along Vegetation Gradient in Hokersar Wetland of Indian Himalayas(SKUAST Kashmir, 2021) Iftikar Ali; Bhat, Dr. Javeed Iqbal AhmadThe present study was carried out from July, 2019 to March 2020 to investigate the seasonal changes of physico-chemical and microbiological properties of soil under different vegetation areas i.e., marshy, fallow, plantation and agriculture of Hokersar wetland located between 34°.6′ N latitude and 74°.12′ E longitude in northwestern Himalayas of Kashmir valley. Soil samples were collected from surface (0-20 cm) and sub-surface (20-40 cm) at all the four vegetation areas during different seasons i.e., spring, summer, autumn and winter. The texture of soil was sandy clay loam in agriculture and plantation areas, clay loamy in fallow and clayey in marshy area. Bulk density and particle density were observed highest (1.54 g/cm3 and 2.47 g/cm3) in sub surface soils of agriculture area and lowest (0.16 g/cm3 and 0.35 g/cm3) in surface soils of marshy area. Soil porosity was observed highest (53.67%) in surface soils of marshy area and lowest (39.03%) in surface soils of agriculture area. The moisture content was found highest in marshy sub surface soils (38.03%) during spring season and the lowest in surface soils of agriculture area (15.43%) during summer. The soils were slightly acidic to slightly alkaline in reaction under different seasons. Highest soil pH was observed at a depth of 20-40 cm under agriculture area (7.74) followed by fallow and marshy area whereas lowest was recorded at a depth of 0-20 cm under plantation area (6.63). Electrical conductivity values were recorded highest (0.266 dSm-1) at a depth of 0-20 cm under marshy soils in spring season and lowest (0.092 dSm-1) in subsurface soils of agriculture area during winter season. The soil organic carbon was observed maximum (3.67%) in surface soils of marshy area during winter season and lowest (0.57%) in sub-surface soils of agriculture area during summer season. The soil macro and micro nutrients viz. total nitrogen, available phosphorous, available potassium and iron were found highest (0.72%, 15.61 mg/kg, 102.44 mg/kg and 9.22 mg/kg) in surface soils of marshy area during spring season whereas the lowest (0.11%, 2.73 mg/kg, 20.60 mg/kg and 2.71 mg/kg were observed in agriculture soils at a depth of 20-40 cm during winter. Highest concentrations of lead (0.282 mg kg-1) was detected in surface soils of marshy area whereas, lowest concentration was detected at a depth of 20-40 cm under agriculture soils (0.132). The soil microbial biomass carbon, microbial biomass nitrogen and total microbial count) were found highest (485.13 mg/kg, 127.13mg/kg and 14.13×106 CFU/g) in surface soils of marshy area followed by plantation and fallow area during summer season and lowest (58.03 mg/kg, 8.47 mg/kg and 2.30×106 CFU/g) in subsurface agricultural soils during winter season. Microbial biomass C/N ratio was recorded highest under agriculture soils (10.31) at a depth of 20-40 cm followed by fallow, marshy soils during winter and lowest at a depth of 0-20 cm under plantation soils (2.46) during autumn season. These results indicated that marshy soils were dominant in organic carbon content, macro and micro nutrients and microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen. Therefore it may be concluded that the conversion of natural wetland areas into agriculture areas has resulted in general decline in soil physicochemical and biological properties which has in turn contributed to soil erosion, soil fertility degradation and wetland extinction. The results further suggest that healthier soil follows the trend: marshy ˃ plantation ˃ fallow ˃ agriculture.ThesisItem Open Access Assessment of Air Quality with respect to Particulate Matter and CO2 concentration of some selected Tourist sites and Water Quality Analysis of Dal Lake and its tributaries in the Kashmir Valley(SKUAST Kashmir, 2021) Bona, Solomon Kai; Lone, Dr. F. A.The present study was undertaken to monitor the ambient concentrations of particulate matter and carbon dioxide of some selected tourist sites of Srinagar city in winter and spring (November 2019 to April 2020) and also to assess the water quality of Dal Lake and its tributaries in terms of their physico-chemical parameters in July 2020 (summer) and October 2020 (autumn). The study/tourist sites include Harwan Garden, Shalimar Garden, Naseem Bagh, Nishat Garden, and Chesmashahi Botanical Garden and the sites for comparison were selected as SKUAST-K Shalimar and Lal Chowk. The air sampling was carried out on every fortnight using Aerocet 831-Aerosol Mass Monitor and CDM 901-CO2 Monitor three times during the day viz., morning (9:00am-10:30am), afternoon (1:00pm-2:30pm), and evening (4:30pm-6:00pm) with three replications. The data obtained for the six-months of sampling reveals that concentration of pollutants ranged from 22.20 - 115.30 μg/m3 in case of PM1; 33.03 - 356.07 μg/m3 in case of PM2.5; 49.03 - 407.57 μg/m3 in case of PM4; 91.70 - 746.87 μg/m3 in case of PM10; 108.23 - 959.80 μg/m3 in case of TSP and 469.20 - 664.27 ppm in case of CO2. The winter season recorded the highest mean concentration of pollutants at all the sampling sites. Also, the morning and evening concentrations of pollutants at most of the sampling sites were recorded highest compared to their afternoon records. The average six months concentration of pollutants showed that the smaller particles (PM ≤ 4 μm) were recorded highest at Shalimar Garden and SKUAST-K Shalimar, and the larger particles (PM10 and TSP) were recorded highest at Naseem Bagh and Lal Chowk. Highest level of CO2 was recorded at Shalimar Garden (610.56 ppm). Meteorological parameters like maximum and minimum temperatures significantly influenced the pollutants level at all the sampling sites. However, rainfall had only a significant impact on the levels of PM10 and TSP at all the sampling sites. The study was also carried out to assess the water quality of Dal Lake and its tributaries, four inlets (viz. Botkoul, Telbal Nallah, Pishpav Nallah and Nallah Meerek Shah), two outlets (viz. Dal Lock Gate and Nallah Aamir Khan) and five sampling sites within Dal Lake (viz. Char Chineri, Nehru Park, Southeast of SKICC, Northeast of SKICC, and Near Karpora Lam) during summer and autumn of 2020. The physico-chemical parameters analyzed include temperature, pH, EC, TDS, NO3--N, NH3-N, total phosphorus, PO43-, Na+, K+, COD, DO, BOD, oil & grease, Ca2+, Mg2+, total hardness, SO42- and heavy metals (viz. Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd, Zn, and As). The data reveals that in summer season, temperature ranged from 14.10 - 23.60 oC, pH (6.71 – 8.18), DO (2.09 - 7.34 mg/L), total phosphorus (0.33 - 0.49 mg/L), orthophosphate (0.26 - 0.31 mg/L), COD (26.67 - 80.00 mg/L) and BOD (3.42 - 9.11 mg/L) and these levels were higher than recorded in the autumn season at most of the study sites. On the other hand, autumn season observed higher concentrations of TDS (74.67 - 449.67 mg/L), EC (113.33 - 640.00 µS/cm), NO3--N (0.85 - 1.78 mg/L), NH3-N (0.79 - 2.18 mg/L), SO42- (39.33 - 218.53 mg/L), oil & grease (0.07 - 0.16 mg/L), Ca2+ (15.01 - 126.83 mg/L), Mg2+ (11.91 - 141.51 mg/L) and total hardness (96.58 - 755.56 mg/l) at most of the study sites. Fe, Mn, and Pb were higher during the summer season, whereas Cu, Zn, and Cd were higher during the autumn season. It was also observed that most of the parameters were negatively correlated with pH and DO, but positively correlated with temperature, COD and BOD respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Isolation and Identification of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi from Saffron fields of Pampore, Kashmir(SKUAST Kashmir, 2021) Iqra Binti Ayoub; Dr. Shoukat AraThe present study, titled “Isolation and identification of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae from saffron fields of Pampore, Kashmir” was conducted at 9 sites of Pampore in 2019-20. Pampore area in Kashmir valley is famous for saffron cultivation and is one of the major saffron cultivation area in the world. The selection of sites was done on the basis of slope and altitude and were categorized as, elevated (location with higher altitude but lower slope), sloppy (location with median altitude than elevated and plains but higher slope) and plain (location with lower altitude and lower slope). The available macro and micro nutrients were determined using standard techniques. The maximum higher values of soil parameters (pH, EC, Bulk Density, available nitrogen, available potassium, available calcium, calcium carbonate, Zn and Cu) were obtained towards lower slopes of the study areas. The soil reaction was found to be weakly acidic to slightly alkaline in nature. The texture of soil varied from loam to silt loam. The Bulk density was found more in sloppy areas (1.56 g/cm3) due to higher sand content. The moisture content was found more in plain soils (17.70%) reflecting the effect of slope gradient in determining the moisture content. The available nutrients nitrogen (293.69kg/ha) and potassium (257.57kg/ha) were found more in plain soils than elevated and sloppy soils whereas available phosphorus (11.65kg/ha) was less in plains. The available calcium (2172.66 ppm) and calcium carbonate (1.61%) were found more in plain soils due to the leaching from sloppy areas. The micro-nutrient cations Zn (1.57ppm) and Cu (1.37ppm) were found more in sloppy areas where as Mn (10.93ppm) and Fe (25.09ppm) were found more in plain soils. Four types of arbuscular mycorrhizae were isolated from the soils of saffron fields. The genera isolated were identified as Glomus, Acaulospora, Scutellospora and Gigaspora. Glomus and Acaulospora were pre-dominant. The highest spore population was found in summer (11.33/g soil) as compared to winter due to the congenial temperature in summer. Root colonization was more (79.90%) in less phosphorus containing soils. The phosphatase activity was more in summer (37.05µgp-NP/g/ha) as compared to winter and maximum values were found in sloppy areas due to minimum phosphorus in these soils. The phosphorus solublising bacteria were found maximum in summer (18.51× 105CFU/g) than in winter and the maximum values were found in plain soils due to the presence of more arbuscular mycorrhizae.
