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Open Access
Smart Irrigation System in High Density Apple Orchard Using IOT (Internet of Thing)
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Riyaz Ashraf; Kumar, Rohitashw
Water is very precious natural resource to all living organisms including plants. The major amount of fresh water is to be utilized by the agricultural industry for irrigation. By using automatic irrigation control mechanism the water content can be made constant in soil to meet out plat requirement. The real time Smart Automatic Irrigation System Using IOT (internet of things) developed and validated for drip irrigation in High density Apple orchard located at SKUAST-K Shalimar Research farm located at 34.08o N latitude and 74 .87o E longitude and 1550m above mean sea level. The micro-controller unit is exclusively solar energy driven which makes it environment friendly besides eliminates need of electricity in the farmlands. The system besides showing soil moisture at three different places was able to detect atmospheric humidity and atmospheric temperature; both these parameters were visible on LCD display also visible on mobile phone. An indigenous resistive soil moisture sensor was made with the feature of limited cost factor, durability, and length of soil moisture sensor. The most important advantage of this system is that the final product is complete and can be calibrated as per our soil type, root depth, crop-water requirement. Total budget for system establishment is only Rs 5915.0 only, which makes it acceptable even by marginal farmers. The cost of electricity was saved by 40%, thus reduces the economical thrust on farmers pocket. The Water applied for Irrigation was saved by 37.5% as compared to manually regulated drip irrigation. This helps to conserve water in agriculture to larger extent if adopted commercially. Labour cost was saving by 75.77% which reduces drudgery from farmlands of horticulture.
Open Access
Development and Process Optimization of Tomato Puree using Ohmic Heating System
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Nazish Nisar; Shahzad Faisal
The study highlights the procedural methodology of the experiments that led to the development of ohmic heating system. Ohmic heating is a green processing technology that is different from other heating methods. In this process electricity is allowed to pass through the food sample and heating occurs due to inherent resistance of food. It is highly effective technology that provides rapid and homogenous heating. Electro-resistive heating or joule heating are some of its other names. Some of the applications existing for ohmic heating in the area of food processing include blanching, pasteurization, sterilization, concentration, extraction. In the present investigation, a lab scale ohmic heating system was developed which consists of a heating chamber, a pair of electrodes, lid, thermocouple, temperature controller, variac transformer and AC power supply (220 V, 50 Hz). The chamber was made of Polyacryl sheet. The electrodes are made with stainless steel (SS 316). Lid was made of Teflon. K-type thermocouple was used to monitor temperature from (0-500°C). The single phase power supply from alternating current (AC) mains (220 V, 50 Hz) was used in the experimental set-up. A variac transformer (4 amp) which varies the voltage in the range of (0-270 V) was used to provide required voltage to the system according to the experimental design. The electrical variables were recorded using digital multimeter. A polyacryl sheet was used as base to fix entire ohmic setup. Ohmic heating treatment was applied to tomato puree at 3 different combinations of voltage (150, 160, 170 V), salt concentration (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 %) and Temperature (70, 80, 90°C) for the responses, viz, pH, TSS, Colour change, Lycopene and optimized using Box- Behnken Design. Temperature, current and voltage applied were monitored. The ohmic heating mechanism was analysed and evaluated on the basis of time required (min) and point electrical conductivity (S/m). The overall time required and point electrical conductivity for heating tomato puree was 3.04-5.24 minutes and 1.09 to 1.85 S/m respectively. The optimum value of voltage, salt concentration and temperature were found to be 170 V, 0.3 % and 70 °C respectively with a desirability value of 0.713. At this optimum condition, the predicted values for pH, TSS, Colour change and Lycopene were found to 4.1, 9.11 °Brix, 6.25 % and 18.7 mg/g respectively. In comparison with conventional heating method, ohmic heating was found to be best with higher lycopene retention (18.6 mg/g), minimum colour change (6.34 %) and more effective at reducing microorganisms because of its greater severity.
Open Access
Optimization of Process Variables for Refractance Window Drying of Potato
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Mahapara Showkat; Shukla, R.M.
The present study entitled “Optimization of Process Variables for Refractance Window Drying of Potato” was undertaken in the Division of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar, during the year 2021. The drying process parameters i.e. Drying temperature (75, 85 and 95ºC), KMS-pretreatment (0.5, 1 and 1.5%) and Slice-thickness (3, 4 and 5mm) were optimized by Response Surface Methodology using Box Behnken Design for the responses namely maximize dehydration and rehydration ratios, minimize shrinkage ratio and color change, and maximize overall acceptability. In addition to the optimization of dried potato slices using refractance window dryer parameters (moisture content, water activity, color change, crispiness and overall acceptability) of dried potato slices stored for 90 days, dried at optimized conditions and packed in different packaging materials (HDPE and PET Jars) were also studied. Also, the comparative analysis of optimized refractance window dried potato slices with conventionally dried potato slices was carried for parameters namely proximate analysis, water activity, texture profile analysis, color change and sensory evaluation. The optimum values of the drying temperature, KMS-pretreatment and Slice-thickness were found to be 85ºC, 0.5% KMS, 3mm respectively at desirability of 0.594 respectively. At this optimum condition, the predicted values for dehydration and rehydration ratios, shrinkage ratio, color change and overall acceptability were 4.69, 3.75, 0.345, 10.19, 16.50 and 4.49. After 3-months of storage, HDPE pouches were found to be appropriate packaging material with lower moisture content (8.06 %), lower color change (10.41), maximum crispiness (17.23), lower water activity (0.296), and maximum sensory evaluation (4.05) as compared to PET Jars. Comparative analysis results showed that there was better retention of total sugar (4.79 %), Protein content (6.4%) and carbohydrates (80.08%) with lower ash content (1.86 %) and moisture content (6.97 %) and almost same fat (0.6 %) and fibre (4.09%) in optimized sample than in conventionally dried samples. Water activity was found lower in optimized product (0.285) than in conventionally dried sample (0.301). Colour change was found significantly lower in optimized product (9.97) than in conventionally dried sample (21.13). Optimized sample were having better mean crispiness values (17.57 N/mm), lower hardness values (5.27 N) and maximum sensory score (4.41) than conventionally dried samples.
Open Access
Optimization of Process Variables for Refractance Window Drying of Red Chillies
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Salati, Beenish Siraj; Shukla. R. M. S
The present study entitled “Optimization of Process Variables for Refractance Window Drying of Red Chillies” was undertaken in the Division of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar, during the year 2021 to characterize the drying characteristics of chilli slices. Further the drying process parameters i.e. Drying temperature (75°C, 85°C, and 95°C), NaCl pretreatment ( 0.5%, 1% and 1.5 %) and sample size (2cm, 4cm and 6cm) were optimized by Response Surface Methodology using Box Behnken Design for the responses, namely dehydration ratio, color change, ascorbic acid and overall acceptability. In addition, various quality parameters (moisture content, water activity, ascorbic acid, hardness and color change) of Refractance Window Dried chilli slices stored for three months, dried under optimized conditions and packed in different packaging materials (HDPE and Laminates) were also investigated. Also the comparative analysis of optimized chilli slices with conventionally dried chilli slices was carried for parameters viz., microbial analysis, water activity, ascorbic acid, color change, browning index and hardness. The optimum values of drying temperature, NaCl concentration and sample size were found to be 75ºC, 1.5% and 6 cm respectively at desirability value of 0.789. At this optimum condition, the predicted values for the dehydration ratio, color change, ascorbic acid and overall acceptability were found to be 4.12, 18.81, 73.67, 4.52 respectively. After three months of storage, laminated pouches were found to be appropriate packaging material with higher ascorbic acid retention (71.48 mg/100g), minimum color change (21.34%), lower moisture content (6.7% db), lower water activity (0.462) and maximum hardness values (1.459N) in comparison to HDPE pouches. Comparative analysis results showed the better retention of ascorbic acid, hardness, water activity, and color change than conventionally dried samples.
Open Access
Effect of climate change on water resources parameters over the Jhelum basin using variable infiltration capacity (VIC) hydrological model and copula statistical modelling
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Mishra, Ananya; Kumar, Rohitashw
Climate change jeopardises the world's fresh water resources and aquatic eco-systems. A small climate shift caused by rising air temperatures and fluctuating precipitation is may to have a significant impact on highland river systems. Understanding climate change necessitates paying attention to changes in climate variability and extremes, yet understanding of these variables' recent behaviour is limited. Water resource planning and management must progressively consider the effects of global climate change in order to effectively estimate future water availability. Climate extremes such as streamflow forecasts and drought are important tools for strategic planning and management of future water resources, particularly in high-altitude of Himalayas. This study examined the impacts of climate change on water resources and extreme events in Jhelum basin (upper Indus basin in Kashmir). The study include framework to calibrate catchment-specific for streamflow simulation in the variable infiltration capacity (VIC) model with a 0.25° spatial resolution at 4 hydrological gauge stations for a baseline period from 1981 to 2018. The hydrological models (VIC), which have been calibrated against the monthly discharge for a time period of (2007-2012) and been validated for a period of (2013-2017). The performance of model, was analysed using statistical indicator, coefficient of determinisation (R2) and nash sutcliffe coefficient (NSE). The coefficient of determination (R2) attained the value as 0.78 and the nash Sutcliffe coefficient (NSE) was found to be 0.79. The model showed a close agreement between simulated and observed values of streamflow. The models calibrated were then driven by climate projections from global circulation models (GCMs) under Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios (RCP) 4.5 scenario. The model projected the streamflow for all the stations of the basin for a period of 10 years. The results indicated a grid wise daily simulated streamflow calibrated according to the study area for base line period. The projected streamflow for all the station simulation according to GCM downscaled RCP 4.5 scenario. The study also analysed the climatic extreme of meteorological drought in the basin using copula modelling of drought variables to estimate the joint behaviour of drought characteristics. The SPI drought index was used to quantify drought on times scales of 3,6,12 months for all the stations. The drought variables were fitted with marginal distributions for univariate analysis, with the lognormal distribution emerging as the best fit distribution. The best fitting copula was selected based on the least values of SIC and AIC from the Archimedean and Elliptical families of copula. The copula analysis that indicated the correlation between the drought variables and duration and severity showed high correlation between them. Further, the bivariate analysis was carried out which returned the values of joint cumulative density function of return period of drought. The return period of drought having the 2-dimensional effect of drought variable in the frequency of drought was determined. The return period was expressed in two cases i.e., “AND” and “OR” for bivariate analysis. The uncertainty for the marginal distribution for the analysis was estimated for a certain return period of drought. The results showed that the Jhelum basin experience a moderate drought in terms of drought index for all time scales. The joint return period of drought estimated as “AND” and “OR” indicated that the drought in the region was underestimated in case of “OR” and overestimated in “AND” case. The results of this study can not only help drought investigation to select a suitable probability distribution and copulas function, but are also useful for regional water resource management.
Open Access
Soil Erosion Estimation and Impact of Land Use/Cover Change in Devalgam Watershed of Bringi Catchment using RS and GIS
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Khatana, Ajaz ul Mumtaz; Pandit, Bashir Ahmad
Soil erosion is one of the major causes of soil degradation across the globe. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model in GIS environment was used to assess the spatial variability of erosion occurring at Devalgam watershed. ASTER DEM (30 m×30 m). Annual rainfall data of 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020, LULC maps and soil maps, and published literature were used as input to the model. The average annual soil loss in the Devalgam watershed varied for years 1990,2000,2010 and 2020 from 0 to 127.32, 140.34,146.49 and 187.23 t/ha/yr and the mean annual sol loss was estimated as 16.6,18.3,19.1,22.08 t/ha/yr. Zonal statistical analysis of soil erosion for different land cover type showed that barren land and open forest were more prone to erosion with an estimate of 85.12 and 52.35 t/ha/yr; respectively while vegetation ,built-up, orchards and agriculture were least prone to erosion. In the present study LULC change in devalgam watershed is becoming a crucial component for managing the natural resources. Remote sensing and GIS technologies have proven to be an effective tool to analyze LU/LC changes on watershed basis. The study area was classified into six LU/LC classes: agriculture, forest, vegetation, barren land, built-up and orchards. and it was found that maximum area in 2020 was covered by forest (30.5%) followed by barren land (25.7%) while the minimum area was covered by orchards (0.5%) out of total area i.e., 2058.618 ha. The Overlay analysis of LANDSAT-5 1990 over LANDSAT-8 OLI 2020 was done to analyze changes from 1990 to 2020. The results also shows that area under forest, vegetation decreased by 17.3% and 48% respectively, while area of Built-up, barren land, orchards and agriculture increased by 123%, 36.5%,0.5% and 36.4% respectively. The overall accuracy for classified imageries i.e., LANDSAT-5(1990), LANDSAT-7 (2000), LANDSAT-7 TM (2010) and LANDSAT-8 OLI (2020) were obtained as 86.6%, 76.6% ,80% and 90% with a kappa coefficient as 0.84, 0.71,0.75 and 0.87 respectively.
Open Access
Development and Process Optimization of Grape juice using Ohmic Heating System
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Nowsheri, Aaheena; Shukla, R.M.
The present study entitled “Development and process optimization of Grape juice using Ohmic Heating System ” was undertaken in the Division of Processing and Food Engineering ,College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar, during the year 2021.Ohmic heating is an advanced thermal processing method .Ohmic heating is a process in which an alternating current is passed through the food material for heating ,where heat is internally generated due to electrical resistance when a current is passed through it. It is also known as joule heating ,electro- heating or electrical resistance heating, and may be used for a variety of applications in the food industry like pasteurization, sterilization, blanching, dehydration, extraction and heating food stuffs. In the present investigation, a laboratory scale ohmic heater was developed .The ohmic heater consists of a heating chamber, set of electrodes, lid, temperature controller, thermocouple, AC power supply, variac transformer, base and control panel. The chamber is made of polyacryl tube. The electrodes are made with stainless steel (SS 316), lid is made of teflon, K type thermocouple (0-1250°C) was used to monitor temperature .AC power supply with 220 V, 50 Hz was used in the experimental set-up. A 4 amp variac which varies the voltage in the range of 0-270 V was used to provide required voltage to the system according to the experimental design. The electrical variables were recorded using digital ammeter and voltmeter. A wooden frame was used as base to fix entire ohmic setup and control panel. The control panel was made up of wooden to fix temperature controller, ammeter, and voltmeter. In the developed ohmic heater, grape juice was heated at three different combinations of voltage (150-170V), salt concentration (0.1-0.3%) and heating temperature (70-90°C), for the responses viz, pH, TSS, colour change and anthocyanin and optimized using Box Behnken Design. Temperature, current and voltage applied were monitored. The ohmic heating mechanism was analyzed and evaluated on the basis of time required (min) and point electrical conductivity (S/m).The optimum value of voltage, salt concentration and heating temperature were found to be 153V, 0.3% and 76°C , respectively with a desirability value of 0.606 . At this optimum condition the predicted values for pH, TSS, colour change and anthocyanin were found to be 3.35, 16.5°Brix, 5.53% and 117.36 mg/100 ml respectively. Ohmic heating was found to be more effective for microbial inactivation due to electroporation, and also the change in nutritional properties were observed to be better with minimum colour change (5.31%) and less anthocyanin degradation (117.55 mg/100 ml), in comparison with conventional heating method.
Open Access
Assessment of Hydrogeological Characterization and Modelling of Springsheds in a Changing Environment of Central Kashmir
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Syed, Rouhullah Ali; Khan, Junaid N.
A study was planned to assess the effect of changing environment on springshed hydrology of Central Kashmir. A survey and assessment of hydrogeological characteristics were done to map the water resources of Central Kashmir viz. springs, wells, streams, lakes, etc. One hundred eighty-four (184) springs and two hundred eight (208) wells, including both bore-wells and dug-wells, were geotagged and further used for modelling purposes in the study area. Five springs among the surveyed springs were selected for periodic discharge measurement for 21 months. Considering the environmental change, future projections of the climate were generated using RCP 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios of HadGEM GCM data. Modelled data were corrected using the observed data of the same time period with the application of two simple methods, viz. modified difference approach and linear scaling method. The linear scaling method performed better than the modified difference approach with RMSE near the observed data after correction. The correction functions derived by the LS method were further used to generate the corrected future scenarios. The future scenarios generated were divided into three time periods, viz. near future (NF), mid future (MF), and far future (FF). Future climate scenarios were compared with the baseline time period, which is the observed set of meteorological variables. The detailed mapping of the study area was done, and various thematic maps were prepared. These maps also served as input to the models. Land use and land cover change matrix were also defined between the two time periods, 2000 and 2017. The study area was analyzed for groundwater recharge potential and rainwater harvesting suitability to identify the potential and suitable zones in the area. Integrated catchment modelling was done with the help of the SWAT and MODFLOW models for the study area. The inputs like soil, LULC, weather data, aquifer properties, etc., were given to simulate the model for the study area under both the scenarios considered and compared with the baseline. The developed models were coupled using the SWAT-MODFLOW interface. The results inferred that the climate projections for the 21st century showed an increase in average annual temperature under both scenarios and for both stations, AMFU Shalimar and IMD Srinagar. The maximum increase was predicted for the Shalimar station under both scenarios compared to the IMD Srinagar station, and the maximum increase was predicted under the RCP 8.5 scenario of 6.91 oC (FF) for AMFU, while 5.72 oC (FF) was predicted for the IMD station. The precipitation would increase throughout the future, and the maximum increase would be (47.29%) from the baseline under RCP 8.5 for Shalimar station. In the case of the IMD station, the precipitation would increase in the near future and then decrease in the mid and far future. The average streamflow in the Dal catchment is increasing, whereas, in other catchments, the streamflow shows a decreasing trend under the scenarios considered. The study region’s flow budget indicated overall water extraction from the groundwater systems by -7001.23 and -11003.15 m3/day during RCP 4.5 and 8.5, respectively, which resulted in a groundwater table drop/decline in Central Kashmir. Good areal coverage has been analyzed for groundwater recharging potential and rainwater harvesting suitability level, which may be used for recharging the local groundwater resources. The average discharge from treated and managed springs was almost constant throughout the recording period. Some of the springs and wells showed an increase in flow mainly due to the constructed water harvesting structures and fewer LULC changes in the nearby areas. Seasonal variation in spring discharge was also observed in the maximum of the springs under consideration. Forest class has shown the maximum negative change in the last two decades, which may concern the recharging in the higher Himalayan regions of Central Kashmir. The study showed how GIS could leverage digital data to determine the optimum sites for groundwater and rain/snow water harvesting. A zonation helps manage water resources, especially springs in the studied region. Identification of groundwater recharge potential zones (GWRP) & water harvesting suitability levels (WHSL) in the region may effectively reduce the time, labor, and money and consequently allows swift decision-making for sustainable water resources management, notably spring rejuvenation, to maintain water security in the water-scarce parts of the Central Kashmir Himalayas. As several sources of uncertainty are linked with the prediction of environmental change, the results reported here should be interpreted as trends and not as exact quantitative predictions of hydrological changes.
Open Access
Development of nutrient uptake model for drip fertigated tomato in soilless media under greenhouse cultivation
(SKUAST Kashmir, 2022) Bhat, Shakeel Ahmad; Kumar, Rohitashw
A study was undertaken for the Development of nutrient uptake model for drip fertigated tomato in soilless media under greenhouse cultivation in the experimental field of Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar Campus, Srinagar. Tomato (GS-600) crop was successfully grown in soilless media under protected cultivation by reusing the drained nutrient solution. The experiment was laid in a completely randomized design consisting of a total of 16 treatments. Fertigation management included four levels of fertigation viz. F1 = 100% fresh nutrient solution, F2 = 50% fresh nutrient solution with 50% drained leachate, F3 = 70% fresh nutrient solution with 30% drained leachate and F4 = 80% fresh nutrient solution with 20% drained leachate of complete nutrient solution required under optimal microclimatic conditions. Four different growing media viz. M1 (Coco-peat), M2 (Vermiculate), M3 (Perlite) were used in three replicates. The yield per plant was found to be statistically similar in all the four fertigation levels. It means 100% of the leachate can be reused. However, numerically the higher yield of 8.30 kg/plant was found in treatment T1 (Coco-peat + 100% of fresh solution), followed by 7.43kg/plant in treatment T4 (Coco-peat +80% of fresh solution, 20 % leachate). The lowest yield (4.02kg/plant) was found under T14 (Soil + 50% of fresh solution, 50 % leachate) .The quality parameters viz. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), Suagrs,TSS,total phenol content, total chlorophyll content and firmness were also found to be better in the tomato crop raised under soilless substrate as compared to the soil-grown tomato crop under protective cultivation. Among all treatments treament T1 (Coco-peat + 100% of fresh solution) has shown maximum value of quality parameters like TSS(5.51ºB),Total sugars (3.64%),Vitamin C(29.67 mg/100g),Lycopene (5.35%), phenol content(3.72 mg/100g), β-carotene(3.23mg/100g),Firmess (13.9 N).Thus, the study showed that the tomato crop can be successfully grown in closed soilless cultivation system by applying 50% of fresh nutrient solution and 50% of the drained leachate solution. The field experiment was conducted in the year 2019 and 2020 to optimize the suitable nutrient concentration based on Hoagland solution for tomato cultivation in soilless system in the experimental field of Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar Campus, Srinagar. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design keeping three treatments (120%), (100%) and (80%) of Hoagland solution. The Tomato (GS-600) crop was grown in coco-peat media under controlled conditions. In the greenhouse, the temperature and relative humidity were maintained between 25 0C to 35 0C and 40 % to 70 % range respectively. The pH and EC of the Hoagland solution were maintained in the range of 5.5 to 6.5 and 1.5 to 2.2 ds/m respectively in the tank. The yield was best in T1 (120% of Hoagland solution) i.e 6.58 kg/plant which was comparable with T2 (100% of Hoagland solution) i.e 6.40kg/plant. The lowest yield i.e 5.97kg/plant was recorded in T3 (80% of Hoagland solution). With respect to quality parameters, there was significant difference in Suagrs, Ascorbic acid, firmness and lycopene The maximum value of TSS (7.220B),Total Suagrs(5.81%), Ascorbic acid(29.92mg/100g ), lycopene (3.15mg/100g) firmness (13.87N) were recorded for T1 (120% of Hoagland solution). Empirical model for nutrient uptake for grown tomato crop was developed with input data obtained. In this experiment, empirical model for the uptake of five different nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium and magnesium) was developed. Models were developed in Matlab software using stepwise multiple regression (MR). Sensitivity analysis was also performed for the selected models through the determination of standardized regression coefficients. The developed nutrient uptake model is a function of input data like nutrient solution concentration, Relative humidity, Radiation inside greenhouse, leaf area index and air temperature. The coefficient of determination for these models namely Nitrogen Uptake, Phosphorous Uptake, Potassium Uptake, Calcium Uptake and Magnesium Uptake were R2=0.97, R2=0.98, R2=0.98, R2=0.97 and R2=0.99 respectively. The study also evaluated nutrient and water requirement in soilless medium of tomato crop inside polyhouse and open field conditions. The reference evapotranspiration (ET0) in polyhouse and open field conditions was estimated using Stanghellini equation (inside polyhouse) and Penman-Monteith method (open field condition). The ET0 in polyhouse and open field conditions found minimum during the month of April (2.59 mm/day and 2.65 mm/day) and maximum during July (4.09 and 4.79 mm/day), respectively. The total nutrient solution (water +Nutrient) requirement of soilless grown tomatoes in the greenhouse was found to be 172.40 mm. The total crop water requirement (ETc) of the tomato crop gown outside was found to be 234 mm respectively.

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