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ThesisItem Open Access DYNAMICS OF AGRICULTURAL LABOUR - ITS DEMAND AND SUPPLY ANALYSIS IN ASSAM(2023) Dutta, Pompi; Gogoi, P.B.India's economy underwent transformation as agriculture's role shifted. In the 1950s, 70% of the workforce relied on agriculture, but technological progress and labor migration led to a decline. India diversified, fostering a balanced economy. Assam saw similar changes. Female participation in agriculture rose, but women preferred labor-intensive roles to cultivation. Migration from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors posed challenges. Climate change disrupted labor and rainfall patterns, affecting farming. Mechanization aimed to reduce labor, but its adoption varied due to factors like farm size. Ensuring equitable benefits of technology and addressing climate and migration challenges are essential. Despite advancements, full automation remains distant, with human involvement crucial. Addressing small farmers' needs and nuanced tasks is vital for balanced progress. Women's role in agriculture grew, but challenges persist. Policy efforts must sustain agriculture, empower workers, and achieve sustainable development. the aim of this research is to measure the disparities in demand and supply, identify what triggers these discrepancies, and evaluate how these causative factors influence the gap. The specific objectives of this study include : a. Examine the magnitude of agricultural labour at disaggregated levels in Assam; b. Estimate the demand for and supply of agricultural labour across agricultural operations with gender participation c. Analyze the effect of farm mechanization, migration and climate change on labour employment decisions d. Study the problems of agricultural labour and suggest suitable measures, if required. The findings of the study indicate a noteworthy shift in the distribution of labor within the agricultural sector. Both main workers and marginal workers have exhibited a decline in the proportion of cultivators, coinciding with a rise in the number of agricultural laborers. Notably, the labor dynamics exhibit a significant contrast between the UBVZ and CBVZ regions. The UBVZ region faces a situation where the demand for labor surpasses the available supply, while the CBVZ region experiences an inverse scenario. Furthermore, the implementation of mechanization practices has led to a reduction in the labor force engaged in mechanized farms utilizing tractors and threshers. In regions prone to floods and droughts, there is an observable surge in labor demand, particularly during transplanting activities. It is noteworthy that the UBVZ region addresses labor shortages during peak seasons through the employment of migrant laborers. The challenges faced by farmers are multifaceted, encompassing issues such as labor scarcity and unavailability of machinery. These observations carry implications for policy and agricultural practices, suggesting the need for targeted interventions in regions with varying labor dynamics and specific challenges related to workforce availability and mechanization.ThesisItem Open Access ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF HOMEGARDEN BIODIVERSITY IN ASSAM(2021) Hussain, Zafrina; Deka, NiveditaHome garden as the name says is usually a small area of land surrounding a household, where members of the family grows varieties of vegetables, medicinal crops, fruits trees and trees which can be ornamental and so on and is commonly known by the name baari in Assam, in rural household apart from growing vegetables and fruits in their home garden they rear live stocks, cattle’s and fishes as well hence there exist a noticeable biodiversity in a baari, however in urban residents misses this opportunity and is limited to fruits and vegetables for meet the family food requirements . Home gardening is also known by the name homestead gardening as it surrounds the home of the household. Almost every household may it be a rural household or an urban dwelling household both has a garden either their vegetable garden or kitchen garden which is a miniature form of farm plots growing vegetables and herbs in small area and so in small scale. Household grows vegetables, herbs and also fruits in pots and containers to meet their day to day culinary needs. It is often a structured space having a visual appeal all the year round. In today’s human civilization when there are constant threat to the climate and environment home garden is a boon as it serves the environment with greeneries which provides fresh air, bears with the pollution by reducing carbon emission, provides fresh vegetables grown all organically, usually using compost manures, because it is practiced in small scale so the use of chemical fertilizers are negligible. It is also a source of rare and extinct varieties of fruits and herbs which have established medicinal properties. Therefore, to cope up with environmental issues urban civilization practices roof top gardening unlike their rural counterparts as small step to a big environmental issue and also to meet with their nutrition requirement. The present study is an attempt to assess the existing status of biodiversity in the home gardens of few randomly selected villages in five Agro climatic zones of Assam. All the five Agro climatic zones have different characteristics in terms of rainfall pattern, terrain and soil, so does the biodiversity, however the most commonly found biodiversity component have been studied and assessed in terms of economical analysis where in the species richness, its abundance, and its density is studied, the economics of resources used in the home gardens, the role of gender in management of the home gardens, and assessing the contribution of homegarden biodiversity in livelihood. This study was conducted in randomly selected homegardens of Jorhat (Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone), Morigaon (Central Assam Zone), Karbi Anlong (Hill Zone), Sonitpur (North Bank Plain Zone), and kamrup district (Lowe Brahmaputra Valley Zone) of Assam. An inventory of crop species and livestock diversity component in home gardens was prepared and a comparative study using Shannon- wiener index the diversity of species was evaluated and the relative importance value, density and abundance was calculated for the selected home gardens from five different Agro climatic zones. The study categorised the composition of species as components into trees, vegetables, fruits, spices, medicinal plants, and livestock for biodiversity inventory. Thus excluding for example ornamental species, which do not relate immediately to livelihood. A total of 144 plants species belonging to 64 families were recorded from the survey of 290 gardens across the five selected Agro climatic zones of Assam. An average of 34 plant species were found in each homegardens surveyed for the study which included vegetable species, tree species, medicinal plant species, and spices and condiments. The smallest homegardens in the present study had a Shannon index with 1.30, but they were not significantly different from the indices reported for the medium and large (1.21, 1.24, respectively), while the total of 144 species recorded in the study. When the production and consumption ratio was studied across the Agro climatic zones, it is seen that the production and consumption ratio was found to be the highest in the homegardens of the North Bank Plain Zone which was 0.76, followed by the homegardens of the Lower Brahmaputra Valley Zone which was 0.72, respectively. Usually incomes from smaller homegardens is less as compared to the larger homegarden because larger garden have profit motive with higher composition of commercial plant species while in smaller gardens composition of commercial crops is less. The percentage contribution of homegardens towards household’s average annual gross income was 43.33 per cent. Female headed homegardens were significantly higher in size than male headed homegargens in the small sized homegardens and medium sized homegardens in this study. Among the three homegarden size categories 53.00 per cent were female headed in small sized homegardens 59.00 per cent female headed in medium sized homegardens and 57.00 per cent in large sized homegardens.ThesisItem Open Access Inter zonal variation of farm Mechanization in Assam(2021) Gogoi, Horindra; Halim, R. A.Farm mechanisation plays vital roles in reduction of drudgery of the human labour and drought animals, enhancement of the cropping intensity, precision and timeliness of efficiency of utilisation of various crop inputs and reduction of the losses at different stages of crop production through the use of the use of various power sources and improved farm tools and equipments. With growing of pace of farm mechanisation, questions arise on the issues such as degree of adoption and regional variation in the extent adoption of those modern farm machineries and equipments, resource and energy use efficiency, agricultural technology adoption and comparative economic advantage as a result of adoption of different types of farm mechineries. With this point of views, the present study was undertaken in Assam with the specific objectives viz., 1) Examine the extent of adoption of farm mechanisation across different agro climatic zones of Assam, 2) Study the impact of farm mechanisation on technology adoption and energy use, 3) Analyze the resource use efficiency and comparative economics of farm mechanisation and 4) Identify the constraints of farm mechanisation. The study was conducted in five agro climatic zones in Assam (viz., Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone (UBVZ), North Bank Plain Zone (NBPZ), Central Brahmaputra Valley Zone (CBVZ), Lower Brahmaputra Valley Zone (LBVZ) and Barak Valley (BVZ). The sampling design adopted in the study was multistage stratified random sampling design .A sample of 100 farmers was collected for each of the five agroclimatic zones in the ratio of 4 marginal: 3 small:2 medium :1 large so as to make the total sample size 600. The results of the study revealed that the overall mechanization farm was 86 per cent in selected agroclimatic zones of Assam, while 14.00 per cent farms were operating with traditional practices of farm operations by using bullock and manual labour. The highest percentage of mechanization was observed in NBPZ (89.17 per cent) followed by CBVZ, UBVZ, BVZ and LBVZ accounting for 86.67 per cent, 85.83 per cent, 85.00 per cent and 83.33 per cent, respectively. Among the different categories of farm mechanization, on an average, tractor hired farms (THF) occupied the highest percentage (50.97 per cent) followed by power tiller hired farms (PTHF), power tiller owned farms (PTOF) and tractor owned farms (TOF) with the percentage of 37.02, 7.95and 4.07 respectively. operation wise extent of farm mechanization showed that on an average, the primary tillage/ ploughing, threshing and transportation were the major operations mechanised by 86.00 per cent,79.83 per cent and 53.39 per cent farmers respectively, while interculture operation, irrigation, harvesting and winnowing and bagging were mechanised by 10.83 per cent, 27.00 per cent , 7.12 per cent and 31.83 per cent farmers respectively. Adoption of HYV of Sali paddy (in terms of number of farmers) was found to be highest in CBVZ (96.15 per cent) and lowest in UBVZ (81.55 per cent) among the mechanized farm, while in non mechanized farm 33.33 per cent farmers adopted HYV Sali rice, In mechanized farm, HYV Sali rice was adopted in 77.06 per cent area as against only 39.31 per cent for non mechanized farms. HYV seed of mustard, black gram, potato, boro rice and jute in mechanised farm was adopted by 53.62 per cent,40.74 per cent,37.93 per cent,65.69 per cent and 76.47 per cent farmers respectively, while for non mechanised farm, it was observed 16.95 per cent and 40.00 per cent for mustard and jute respectively. On the other hand , HYV seed of Sali rice, mustard, black gram, potato, boro rice and jute in mechanised farm was adopted in 77.96 per cent,66.61 per cent,46.53 per cent,45.74 per cent 62.24 and 66.82 per cent area respectively, as against 39.31 per cent, 16.51 per cent and 44.83 per cent for Sali rice ,mustard and jute respectively in non mechanised farm. Line transplanting practices in Sali rice, was followed only in 6.19 per cent area in mechanised farm as against 4.37 per cent for non –mechanized farms. Among the various agroclimatic zones, line transplanting in Sali rice in mechanised farm was adopted in 2.51 per cent,6.17 per cent ,10.11 per cent,11.12 per cent and 2.44 per cent area respectively in UBVZ, NBPZ, CBVZ,LBVZ and BVZ. On the other hand, line transplanting in Boro rice was adopted in 30.46 per cent , 57.09 per cent ,69.61 per cent,67.01 per cent and 65.17 per cent area respectively in UBVZ, NBPZ, CBVZ,LBVZ and BVZ with the overall adoption of 57.43 per cent. Adoption of chemical fertilizer in Sali rice, mustard, black gram, potato, boro rice and jute in mechanised farm was found in 44.74 per cent, 64.19 per cent, 21.33 per cent, 39.05 per cent ,68.30 per cent and 63.45 per cent area respectively as against 15.15 per cent,16.43 per cent and 13.71 per cent area for Sali rice ,mustard and jute respectively in non mechanised farm. Chemical methods of plant protection measure was adopted in Sali rice, mustard, black gram, potato, boro rice and jute under mechanised farm in 47.37 per cent, 21.65 per cent, 18.99 per cent, 64.98 per cent, 62.25 per cent and 69.52 per cent area respectively as against 22.91 per cent,6.78 per cent and 4.29 per cent area for Sali rice ,mustard and jute respectively in non mechanised farm. The average energy utilised for cultivation of Sali rice, mustard, blackgram, potato, boro rice and jute was 5217.27 MJ/ha , 4488.17 MJ/ha , 2612.70 MJ/ha , 13293.43 MJ/ha , 11204.74 MJ/ha , and 7082.61 MJ/ha respectively in mechanised farm as against 5050.65 MJ/ha3846.70MJ/ha and 6352.25 MJ/ha for Sali rice, mustard and jute respectively in non-mechanised. Various energy efficiciency ratios revealed that energy was efficiently utilised in cultivation of all the crops both in mechanised and non-mechanised farm. Of course, mechanized farms were observed to be more efficient than non mechanized farms from the point of energy utilization. Average human labour and seed utilisation was less in mechanised farm as compared to non mechanised farm for crops under study, whereas per hectare utilisation of fertilizer, manure, plant protection chemicals and micro nutrients was found less in non-mechanised farm than the mechanised farm. Utilisation of human labour in Sali rice, mustard, black gram, potato, boro rice and jute in mechanised farm was found in 86.26 Man days, 42.55 Man days,53.56 Man days, 99.34 Man days ,96.87 Man days and 172.57 Man days respectively as against 117.75 Man days,80.41 per cent and 190.30 Man days for Sali rice, mustard and jute respectively in non mechanised farm. The results of regression analysis for factors affecting crop production revealed that in mechanised farm in UBVZ, seed, fertilizer and machine labour significantly and positively affected the farm income, whereas in non-mechanised farm, FYM and fertilizer were found to be positive and statistically significant. In NBPZ, fertilizer, irrigation and machine labour in mechanised farm, and seed and human labour in non-mechanised farm were found statistically significant. For CBVZ, seed, FYM, irrigation and machine labour affected farm income significantly in mechanised farm, as against fertilizer and bullock labour in non-mechanised farms. In case of LBVZ, fertilizer, irrigation and machine labour were found significant in mechanised farms, while seed and fertilizer were significant in non-mechanised farms. Area, seed, FYM and machine labour significantly contributed to farm income in mechanised farm in BVZ as against seed and fertilizer in non-mechanised farms. Study on the comparative economics of crop production in mechanised and non mechanised farm revealed that the average cost of cultivation per hectare at Cost C2 in Sali rice, mustard, black gram ,potato ,Boro rice and jute under mechanised farm was Rs.46349.32, Rs.28745.28, Rs.25287.79, Rs.98827.93 , Rs.55439.25 and 88580.06 respectively, as against Rs.48386.80, Rs.30540.22 and 92675.21 respectively for Sali rice, mustard and jute in non mechanised farm. .Gross return per hectare was estimated at Rs. 63913.25, Rs.31771.69, Rs 35613.16, Rs.147107.39, Rs.69403.90 and Rs.118218.18 respectively for Sali rice, mustard, black gram ,potato ,Boro rice and jute under mechanised farm, while it was Rs 54817.88,Rs.29059.80 and Rs.110363.54 respectively for Sali rice ,mustard and jute in non –mechanised farm .Per hectare net return in Sali rice, mustard, black gram ,potato ,Boro rice and jute under mechanised farm was Rs.12928.40, Rs.151.88, Rs.7796.59, Rs.38396.66 , Rs.6420.41 and 20780.11 respectively, as against Rs.1592.40, Rs.4534.44 and 8420.81 respectively for Sali rice, mustard and jute in non mechanised farm. Lack of sufficient own funds to meet initial high costs of farm machinery , and lack of adequate credit facilities and rigid repayment norms were the common major problems faced by farmers in all the selected agro-climatic zones. Among all problems, lack of sufficient own funds to meet initial high costs of farm machinery occupied the 1st rank as faced by 90.83 per cent farmersThesisItem Open Access CROP INSURANCE IN ODISHA: AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT(AAU, Jorhat, 2021) Majumder, Saddam Hossen; Deka, NiveditaThe present study identified and quantified the various risks, performance of crop insurance schemes in Odisha and assessed the impact of its adoption along with the prioritization of risk mitigation strategies adopted by the rice growers. The study used primary as well as secondary data and primary data was collected from 240 farmers comprising both insured and non-insured farmers selected from two districts, namely Jagatsinghpur and Kendrapara from East and South eastern coastal plains zones of Odisha, where rice cultivation and climatic related hazards, both are widespread. Few officials and field functionaries of implementing agencies were also selected and interviewed. The study revealed that farmers in Odisha state and the study area as well are much vulnerable to adverse climatic environments, especially floods, drought, severe cyclones and infestation of pest and diseases. Farmers do have their own risk coping strategies like sale of farm produce/ livestock and non-farm activities (daily wage labour) apart from adoption of crop insurance. Crop diversification as a tool of risk reduction also examined through various indices and it was found that insured farmers were in better position to diversify their crops than the non-insured farmers. Growth analysis of earlier introduced insurance schemes showed that farmers and area coverage, farmers covered and benefitted, premium paid and claims settled, etc. decreased except National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) in which growth of above indicators were positive during kharif seasons for loanee farmers. The present scheme Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) introduced during 2016, replacing earlier schemes were also examined and found loanee and non-loanee farmers‟ coverage got increased during kharif season, but percentage coverage of loanee farmers was much higher than non-loanee farmers. Post revamp of PMFBY scheme witnessed increase in the number of non-loanee farmers during rabi 2020-21. However, compensations against crop damages were much lower than the average value of threshold yield. The results also depicted that the farmers were reluctant to invest more due to frequently occurrence of adverse climatic risks but they spend more in material costs in rice production anticipating high yield and compensation in case of any catastrophes, and the fact was reinforced by significant regression coefficient of insurance adoption on materials costs. To estimate the true impact of crop insurance, the difference in difference (DiD) method was employed and found a negligible difference between increment in costs, returns and investment on agriculture between insured and non-insured farmers. Estimates of logit regression models showed that farm size, farmer‟s contact with extension agencies, access to credit, information access from media and influence of fellow farmers‟ were the key drivers of awareness creation and adoption of crop insurance. Estimates of tobit regression model indicated that gross cropped area, credit availed, affordability of farmers to premium rate and diversification status of farm, etc. were the key factors influencing the premium paid by the insured farmers. Delay in conducting crop cutting experiments (CCE), damage assessment and settlement of claims were the main hindrances for adoption of crop insurance as identified and ranked using Garrett ranking technique. Creation of awareness about benefits of crop insurance and considering the individual farm as a unit of assessment instead of gram panchayat were the key suggestion for better coverage of the scheme. It is concluded that a demand driven approach comprising of location specific crops and coverage, targeting young and educated farmer and easy access to information flow through better extension services will facilitate more adoption and improve the farmer‟s stands in protecting their crops from various adversities.
