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ThesisItem Open Access Factors governing response of rice to liming in Kerala soils(Department of soil science and Agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture Vallayani , Trivandrum, 1986) Mary Kutty, K C; KAU; Subramania Aiyer, RA study has been conducted on the factors governing response of rice to liming in Kerala soils with a view to evolve suitable coliorative measures. A five pronged approach to the studies made are highlighted to enable a clear understanding of achievements as against the objectives and approaches made. A laboratory study with one hundred soil samples to assess the nature of acidity of four major rlce growing tracts of Kerala State viz.,Kuttanad, pokali, kole and latoritic alluvium has been carried out. The kuttanad soil lncludes karl, karapadon and kayal lands. Path coefficient anaysis of important fifteen acidity contributing factors against seven parameters for measurement of soil acidity and the inter-relation ships of 22 soil characters show that aluminium saturation of effective CEC is the best parameter for measurement of soil acidity. karapadon and hoyol land3. Path coefficient analysis of Important flftaon acidity contributing factors against seven parameters for racasurcsnont of soil acidity and tho intor-rclationahlpo of 22 soil characters show that aluminium saturation of effective CEG Is tho boot parameter for measurement of soil acidity. '*’*** fifteen factors ldontlflod as proton sources .ooount tor 95.9 por oont of th. mo.ourom.nt. vaulting th. 00. hundnd «il “ "P1” « • 9rOUp*S * pPln0lp*1 . —a erne seven clusters ire formed. This goipaMnt H ^ appliaatlan of prinoip.1 l» a probably th. ur district could however bo grouped together In a cluster with a range of aluminium saturation of effective CBC 70# 1 to 75,0 per cent. The fourth and fifth clusters °f soils studied except the kari soil and having tioir aluminium saturation of effective CCC in tho range of 40.1 to 70.0 por cent. Tho kayal soils of Kuttanad, poWcali and lstsritlc alluvium find a placo in tho sixth cluster with an aluminium saturation of effective CCC in tho range of 30.1 to 40.0 ~jCr cent. The seventh cluster nalnly of lateritic alluvium and a few loss acidic pokkali soils has aluminium saturation of effective CtC below 30.0 per cent. A pot cult ire experiment has been conductod in a highly acid soil hnri s o il o f Kuttanad having tho pH values 3.5 with 39 rico variotioo In or.lor to ocroon out a variety tolorant to acidity. Tho varlotlon hovo boon acroonod £or toloranco to acidltyunlng th. method of D2-0tatloticn. nolocting tho impor- , „h,.a throo cluotoro ora formed. Thoy hova tant character, ano . . flB toiorwit. tedium tolorant boon oharactori«od a and l.aat tolaa th. tolarant varlotl.. Jyothi variety acidity. ****** ^ .jvoc.cy of a p M of ia ranWd t *• • r method, of managmant ..... oowblnlng v.ri.ty 1 including lining and v»»vn>«ing for obtaining better productivity m hl3hly ^ soils of k« . u . liming la a hydro-an\eliorativo process, a pot culeKperlnon,. has been carried out to otudy the effect of 3 -eto^iaia coupled with washing with different levels of water and periods between washing in two highly acid soils. The fact that washing the ooil two or throe tinvas at an interval of 2 days maintaining 10 can water from tlio ooil surface after the application oa lino lu noro efficient often yielding better rerulta with a lower Lining done will certainly make the use of l-inin'1 materials in the management of acid soiis An economic promoaition. This further orroloins the preference for low rates L i •- *- of llmln already acca. tod try farm ra in Kuttanad in spite of oonorve 1 Lae"", of rosoon.sG to li.nin , in resGoj-cn st itions, where tho s o ils ire r.uc.i lesn acid than those confronted in cultivator’s f i e ld a. *, o t cult iroa»no?l.jant hao ixi'.n conducted to otudy tho ff o ' graded lovolo of lining (on dry and wot noli baoio) isingj tiio non'. tr- ,*l-rant vori ty in lour major ncld rlao noil ypon suc„h a-nn Lat-rltic alluvium, Uolo, i»kl;ali and tori soils (,.o f i r s t crop and tho subsequent thrco crons roo:>octivoly. Ml the ros >onso functions fittod hava l>oan in quadratic rxxlol .jcoopt those Involving lo t o r lt ic alluvium. in tolo soil. ti.o residual a££oct o£ limine, io much in , , in tho nocond succeeding avidence only m ^ crop.aCtor which a drastic decrease In ,y#i4enlldd has boon obtained. In th« case of __ r•siflual offoot, however, has been pronounce poWcali no . ^ crop8. In kari soil, th. maximum yl.ld In the second ^ ^ fcha ,uphoat rats of liming nor as could not be obta^ ^ for r.^du.1 effsct.. Th. r.al- • o o n s s ' j u e n o . , r a p i d l y b y t h . .M o n d o r o p dual »PP“ In the case of laterltic alluvium9 application of lime maximum ever* the yield decreases significantly and rapidly. Response functions for the first and second crops could not be worked out. This indicates that tho maximum yiold might have been attained at a lovol of liming bo low 1/4 La doso. However* for the third and fourth crops, at tho rate of liming tried, a quadratic residual response function could bo fitted. Tho results on residual effect of lime hnvo alco shown that higher rates of lirr.e application introduces problems of roacidification at a faster rate. Tho depressive effects of line at higher rate are again a pointer to the need to ac opt low lining rates ;?ut ’./ith frequent applicationsThesisItem Open Access Structure and function of the shell gland in Japanese Quail under different levels of dietary calcium(Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 1994) Philomina, P T; KAU; Ramakrishna Pillai, M GLiterature available on the physiological aspects of egg production in Japaneese quail is scanity and many lacunae exist in the knowledge of various mechanisms involved in the formation of egg. Under the modern practice of intensive quail husbandry it is often found that the egg shells of Japanese quail are becoming thinner, more gragile and easily broken. Consequently, safety in transportation and marketability of these eggs are considerably reduced. Hence it was thought worthwhile to investigate some of the factors involved in egg production, more especially the egg shell formation. In the present investigation attempts were made to elucidate the mechanism of the egg shell formation with respect to the structural and functional peculiarities of the shell gland in Japaneese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) calcium. The study envisaged histological, histochemical peculiarities of the shell gland; the mineral (calcium and inorganic phosphorus) and enzyme (ALP and ACP) profile of the plasma and shell gland. The influence of dietary calcium on the body weight, development of the oviduct, egg production and egg shell quality was also investigated. Japanese quails attained sexual maturity early at the sixth week of age, by which time they attained a body weight of 131.8 + 0.600 g and started egg production. The birds grew at a faster rate in the early weeks, came into peak production at the 16th week of age, and the trend continued even at the 24th week of age, with a body weight of 198.033 + 0.220 g for good production. The length and weight of the oviduct increased from the sixth to 24th week of age. The variation in length and weight of the shell gland from the 16th and 24th week was marginal. Growth rate was almost marginal from the 16th week onwards. Histologically the quail shell gland showed similar structure to that of the domestic fowl except for the tunca muscularis. The inner circular muscle layer was thicker and outer longitudinal layer was thinner. As age advanced, at the 16th and 24th week of age the mucosal folding were numerous. The inner circular muscle layer became thicker and even this layer invaded the lamina propria and the vascularity in the connective tissue core of the tunica muscularis increased. The egg quality traits such as egg weight, shell weight, shell thickness, shape index and specific gravity markedly improved as age advanced from the sixth to 16th week. From the 16th to 24th week the egg quality was lowered with an increase in egg weight, lowering of shell weight, shell thickness and specific gravity. Dietary calcium significantly influenced the body weight, egg production, shell quality,histology of the shell gland and mineral and enzyme profile of plasma. Birds exhibited optimum growth, and production at higher pre-laying and layer dietary calcium levels. Prelaying dietary calcium level of 0.7 to 0.9 percent and layer level of 3 percent were found to be optimum in quail ration. As far as the oviduct development is concerned, pre-laying dietary calcium had negligible influence, whereas layer dietary calcium level of 2.5 percent was just sufficient for optimum development of oviduct/ shell gland. Histologically the only difference noticed in highest (3.5%) layer dietary calcium fed quails was the increased vascularity in their connective tissue core of the lamina propria of the shell gland. There was a positive correlation between dietary calcium (pre-laying and layer) level and plasma calcium concentration at the sixth, and 16th week of age. But at the 24th week of age only layer dietary calcium induced such a relationship. As age advanced, pre-laying dietary calcium became insignificant. In the case of plasma inorganic phosphate concentration, there existed a negative correlation to that of pre-laying and layer dietary calcium levels at all the age groups of quails. It may be emphasized in this context that the extent of the negative correlation existing between plasma inorganic phosphate and prelaying and layer dietary calcium levels was considerably lower. The concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorous in the plasma and shell gland were uninfluenced by the age. The shell gland concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorous was lower compared to their plasma level. These minerals were not stored in the shell gland for shell calcification. At the time of calcification calcium was transferred from the plasma (blood) to the shell gland and then to the shell. Dietary calcium significantly influenced the plasma concentration. Plasma enzyme concentration of ALP and ACP was negatively correlated with dietary calcium (pre-laying and layer) levels, whereas the shell gland ALP concentration was uninfluenced by the dietary calcium and age and its concentration was very low compared to those of plasma ALP and shell gland ACP. Shell gland ALP was unimportant in shell formation. Histochemical localization of the shell gland ALP was in confirmation with that of quantitative estimation. Shell gland ACP content was comparatively higher than ALP, which was also in agreement with histochemical localization. Shell gland ACP may be involved in the transfer of calcium from the plasma to the shell through the shell gland mucosa, since its level in the shell gland was higher and influenced by dietary calcium levels were related to the cyclic medullary bone formation and resorption which is a normal feature in laying birds. Variations in the dietary calcium induced changes in the concentration of plasma minerals and enzymes supported the view that dietary calcium is important for proper shell formation. Higher level of dietary calcium improved the egg shell quality, egg production and body weight. Pre-laying dietary calcium level of 0.7 to 0.9 percent and layer level of 3 percent were found to be optimum in quail ration.ThesisItem Open Access Nutritional status and dietary habits of irulas of Attappady(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1993) Indira, V; KAU; Prema, LA study on the nutritional status and dietary habits of Irulas of Attappady was carried out among 180 families to assess the socio-economic and food consumption pattern of the tribal families and also to assess the nutritional status of the children between the age group of 5 to 15 years. The results of the study indicated that majority of the families were of nuclear type with an average family size of 4.73. Agriculture labour was the main occupation of the tribes and most of the families were below the poverty line. Housing conditions and personal hygiene of the families were found to be poor. Irula tribes in general, were habitually non-vegetarians. Major expenditure of the family income was incurred for food especially cereals. Diet was found to be monotonous with less variety. Two –meal-a-day pattern was the standard system followed by the families, which included cereals, fats and oils and spices and condiments. Boiling was the predominant cooking method followed by the Irula tribes. Gunny bags were used to store cereals and pulses. Tribal families followed certain food restrictions during illness and special food were not included either in the diet of pregnant of lactating women or in the diet of children. Prolonged breast feeding and late weaning was practiced by the Irula tribes. The nutritional status of the children between 5 to 15 years of age was deficient and it was revealed in the anthropometric measurements like height, weight, mid upper arm circumference and skinfold thickness. Food weighment survey revealed a deficient intake of all foods except cereals. The intake of most of the nutrients was low. Low to medium nutritional status was observed among most of the children and birth order of the boys was found to influence their nutritional status. Anaemia was the most important clinical symptom observed among children which was reflected in the biochemical examination of blood for haemoglobin RBC count and packed cell volume. Sickle cell anaemia and parasitic infestations were observed among the children. The respondents had a favourable attitude towards the developmental programme implemented by various agencies to improve their health status. However awareness about health and nutrition was found to be poor.ThesisItem Open Access Genetic analysis of productivity in relation to maturity in bunch groundnut(Department of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1991) Ramakrishnan, M; KAU; Gopinathan Nair, VA preliminary evaluation of 63 bunch type of groundnut revealed that the genotypic coefficient of variation was highest for number of immature pods per plant which indicated the maximum genetic variability for the trait and lowest for oil content which indicated low variability for the trait. High heritability along with moderate genetic advance was obtained for shelling percentage and 100 kernel weight which showed the importance of additive genes in their control. A maturity index was formulated and on its basis the 63 types were classified in to three groups namely, extra early, early and medium. In the extra early group, 100 pod weight and 100 kernel weight were important components for pod yield. In the early group. Number of mature pods per plant, shelling percentage and 100 kernel weight were important components for pod yield. In the medium group, number of mature pods per plant, shelling percentage and 100 kernel weight were important components for pod yield. For oil yield in all the three groups, pod yield and shelling percentage were the important components. Line x Tester analysis with six extra early types as lines and three high productive types as testers indicated predominance of sca variance over gca variance indicating pre ponderance of non – additive gene action over additive for the traits studied. Chico was the best general combiner for earliness and TMV 2 was the best general combiner for pod yield. High yielding extra early recombinants were selected at 80 days after sowing from the 18 Fz populations for further testing and selection.ThesisItem Open Access Physiological investigations in relation to flowering, fruit set and capsule developmentj of cardamom (elettaria cardamomum maton)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1986) Vasantha Kumar, K; KAU; Mohanakumaran, NInvestigations were carried out at the Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara and at the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 1982 – ’84 to gather information on the physiological factors governing flowering, fruit set and capsule development of the three popular cardamom cultivars, Malabar, Mysore and Vazhukka. Emphasis had been given to unravel the causes of fruit (Capsule) shedding so as to evolve methods of control. Studies on growth and development in a broad sense depicted that an individual tiller of cardamom had a biennial growth habit. The different aspects of flowering and fruit set studied. Indicated that the variability was high in the Vazhukka cultivar and low in the Mysore cultivar. An early crop bearing habit was exhibited by Malabar, whereas Mysore possessed a late bearing habit and Vazhukka exhibited varying trends. The percentage of fruit set was high in Vazhukka, followed by Malabar and Mysore. Influence of climatic components on the physiology of flowering showed that a distinct dry spell triggered the panicle initiation process. The onset of rain coupled with high temperature was congenial for flower opening. A high soil moisture status combined with a high status of relative humidity (which resulted from a well distributed rainfall) enhanced the setting of capsules. Histological studies conducted in the genotype PV-1 (Malabar) showed that differentiation of panicle primordial was more during November to March. A prominent vascular zonation was observed in the rhizome nodes prior to the initiation of panicle promordia. Histology of the seeds revealed the development of starch grains at the greenish- yellow seed stage. Biological assays for endogenous auxins, inhibitors and cytokinins in the developing capsules indicated a spurt in auxin and cytokinin activity preparatory to fruit set. The level of inhibitory substances rose after the fruit set stage, while that of auxins fell which favoured the formation of an abscission zone causing shedding of immature capsules. Exogenous application of NAA (40 ppm) and 2, 4-D (4 ppm) increased the plant height, enhanced the production of panicles and flowers, reduced dropping of immature capsules and increased the yield. The uptake of nutrients revealed that cardamom is a heavy feeder of potash. The Vazhukka and Malabar cultivars developed less nutrients than the Mysore cultivar for producing unit yield of capsules. Radiotracer studies showed that the photosynthetic efficiency of cardamom was more under low light intensities. The rhizome was found to be the main sink in a cardamom tiller. Gas chromatographic estimation of cardamom oils indicated that the Mysore genotype (PR-107) was superior in quality aspects (because of high content of the esters, alpha terpenyl acetate, geranyl acetate and linalyl acetate) when compared with the Vazhukka genotype (PV-5) and Malabar genotype (PV-1). For consumption as a spice as well as for distillation of the essential oils, the black seed stages (‘karimkai’) was the most idel stage in cardamom.ThesisItem Open Access Genetic analysis of certain clones, hybrids and inbreds in cocoa(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Rose Mary Francies, KAU; Achamma OommenGenetic studies in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) using various population viz., clones, biclonal crosses, biclonal pair crosses and inbreds were undertaken in College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, during 1994-97. The study assessed variability, association of yield attributes and relative importance of these attributes for yield variation using multiple regression and path analysis. Selection indices, inbreeding depression and limits to genetic diversity for heterosis were also worked out. Wide spectrum of variability existed in the populations studied. The highest variability was observed in yield of dry beans/tree and precocity of bearing (pods/tree - 5 years from planting), whereas, traits pod width and bean width showed low variability. Clones GI 10.2, S 27.16, GI 14.17 of Clonal base population, hybrids H'8 (GI 5.9 x GII 23.3), H2 (M 13.12 x GI 5.9) of Series IV biclonal crosses and hybrids H4 (M 16.9 x GII 19:5), H3 (M 16.9 x GII 20.4) of Series 11 biclonal crosses, exhibited superior yield - performance. Yield however, recorded only moderate heritability and therefore moderate expected genetic advance. Strong correlation was observed for yield with pod weight, dry weight/bean and efficiency index but not with precocity of bearing, chlorophyll contents and net photosynthesis rate. Multiple regression and path analysis revealed the importance of dry weight/bean, bean size and efficiency index in determining the yield in cocoa. High correlation exhibited by many traits was due to indirect effects. Selection index for yield, based on the above traits viz., dry weight/bean, bean length, bean thickness and efficiency index recorded a relative efficiency of 150.35 per cent over direct selection. Inbreeding depression was observed for growth traits. The rate of depression was more in the second inbred generation as compared to that in the first inbred generation. Number of hybrids exhibiting relative heterosis in desirable direction ranged from one (eg. pod width, bean length and thickness) to seventeen (number of beans/pod). Considerable genetic divergence among clonal genotypes was evident. Results indicated that the chances for occurrence of a high frequency of heterotic crosses and high values of heterosis are more, when the parental divergence is moderate.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of growth in Penaeus Monodon Fabricius by incorporation of selected nonhormonal growth promoters in the diet(Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries,Panangad, 1997) Vinodh, M P; KAU; Susheela, JoseThe effect of three growth promoters viz. Chitin, chitosan and glucosamine each at three levels (0.25, 0.5 and 1g per 100g diet) were evaluated in P.monodon early juvenile for a period of 70 days. The three growth promoters at three level were tested with 3 replicates for each treatment. The growth promoters were incorporated into a soyflour clam meal based practical diet containing 40% protein and fed to the shrimps adlibitum. The results showed that the overall growth was not affected by dietary inclusion of chitin though the growth rate at 0.25g chitin per 100g diet was comparatively better than that of the control diet. Chitin does not seem to have any effect on specific growth rate of the juveniles although incorporation at 0.25g/100g diet improved the food conversion of the animal significantly over the control. Percentage survival values were also not significant at any level of incorporation. It does not seem to improve protein efficiency ratio and productive protein value too. Incorporation of chitosan at 0.25 and 0.5g/100g diet significantly improved the weight gain, specific growth rate, food conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and productive protein value. However inclusion of chitosan at 1g/100g diet did not have any effect on growth though it significantly improved food conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and productive protein value. None of these treatments had any effect on survival of the animal. Incorporation of glucosamine into the diet at 0.25g/100g diet was found to be the most efficient amongst the different treatments as evidenced by various growth parameters. It was significantly different from all other treatments in terms of growth, productive protein value and protein efficiency ratio. However it was not significantly different from glucosamine incorporation at 0.5g/100g diet in terms of specific growth rate and food conversion ratio. Enhancement of glucosamine level to 1g/100g diet was found to give poor result compared to the control. The survival rate of shrimps were not significantly different among the treatments. Hence in the present study, glucosamine was found to be superior to chitin and chitosan as a growth promoter and the optimum level was identified as 0.25g/100g diet for P.monodon juvenilesThesisItem Open Access Characterization and management of insecticide resistance in spodoptera litura (fabricius) (lepidoptera:noctuidae)(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Pattapu Sreelakshmi; KAU; Thomas Biju, MathewA study on “Characterization and management of insecticide resistance in Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)” was undertaken at Thiruvananthapuram, Pathanamthitta and Alappuzha districts of Kerala during 2014-2017. Objectives were to assess the insecticide resistance in field populations of S. litura, investigate the mechanisms of resistance and to evaluate the efficacy of new generation insecticides against the resistant populations. A preliminary survey conducted among vegetable growers in Palappur, Kovilnada, Nedingil, Amaravila and Venganoor locations of Thiruvananthapuram district revealed control failures in the field population of tobacco caterpillar due to the continuous application of insecticide like chlorpyriphos, quinalphos and lambda cyhalothrin. The survey data served as the benchmark for further studies on the insecticide resistance in S. litura. Mass rearing was undertaken on artificial and natural diets to satisfy the requirements for conducting various bioassays. Reduction of total larval duration of S .litura to 13.08 days was observed in case of larvae reared on castor based diet which was significantly superior when compared to larvae reared on castor leaves (14.08 days), diet-1 (14.50 days), cowpea leaves (20.83 days) and amaranthus leaves (18.33 days). Hence, castor based diet, diet-1 and castor leaves were selected for mass rearing of S. litura throughout the study period. Bioassay was carried out in CRD to assess insecticide resistance in populations of S. litura collected from different locations viz., Palappur, Kovilnada, Nedingil, Amaravila, Venganoor, Thiruvalla (Pathanamthitta) and Kanjikuzhi (Alappuzha) using insecticides viz. chlorpyriphos, quinalphos, cypemethrin, fenvalerate, lambda-cyhalothrin, chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide at different doses. Results revealed that population collected from organic fields of Kanjikuzhi was found to be susceptible to insecticides with resistance ratio-1. Population collected from Kovilnada was found to be resistant with a resistant ratio of 6.14, 10.41, 6.48, 1.79, 8.50 and 3.54 when compared with field check (Kanjikuzhi) and 1965, 605, 2566, 916, 826 and 821 when compared with baseline susceptibility check (NBAIR strain) for chlorpyriphos, quinalphos, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, lambda-cyhalothrin and chlorantraniliprole respectively followed by populations collected from Palappur and Nedingil. Whereas, methomyl (2.92 and 183 fold) and flubenidamide (3.31 and 314) resistance were high in populations collected from Amaravila and Venganoor. Among the test locations, Kovilnada and Palappur were selected whose populations showed comparatively higher levels of resistance. These two populations along with one field check from Kanjikurhi and susceptible strain check from National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Bangalore were selected for further studies to evaluate the levels and mechanisms of resistance when exposed to chlorpyriphos, quinalphos, cypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin. With a view to elucidating the mechanisms of resistance, S. litura populations collected from four locations were monitored to investigate the levels of detoxification enzymes which might have imparted resistance. Biochemical analysis revealed the specific activities of detoxification enzyme Acetyl choline esterase (AChE) was 16.16 times more in Kovilnada population followed by 10.71 times in Palappur and 4.88 times in Alappuzha populations when compared with NBAIR check. Whereas, Mixed Function Oxidase (MFO) enzyme which showed 19.24 times more specific activity in Kovilnada population followed by Palappur with 17.11 fold and Alappuzha with 6.08 indicating the dominant role of AChE and MFO in imparting resistance. Whereas, Carboxyl esterase (CarE) and Glutathion-S-transferase (GST) with 3.62 and 3.37 fold in Kovilnada followed by 2.89 and 2.98 fold in Palappur, 2.10 and 1.15 fold in populations of Kanjikuzhi indicated their partial role in resistance development. The results obtained in synergism study revealed that piperonyl butoxide (PBO) was observed to be the most effective synergist capable of breaking the resistance in all the test chemicals at 1:4 combination followed by Diethyl maleate (DEM) and Tri phenyl phosphate (TPP) for chlorpyriphos and TPP and DEM against quinalphos, lambda-cyhalothrin and cypermethrin indicating major role of mixed function oxidases and esterases and partial role by GSTs in resistance development against organophosphates and synthetic pyrethroids. Further, the results associated with synergism assays were confirmed by monitoring the detoxification enzyme activities in synergized populations where, 9.32 fold reduction of AChE in chlorpyriphos+TPP treatment and 4.78 fold reduction of GST in chlorpyriphos+DEM and 5.15 fold reduction of CarE in quinalphos+TPP combinations elucidated the role of multiple detoxification enzymes in imparting resistance to organophosphates. Whereas, 7.33 fold reduced activity of AChE in case of lambda-cyhalothrin+TPP and 5.35 fold reduced activity of MFO in case of lambda-cyhalothrin+PBO and 7.36 fold reduced activity of CarE in case of cypermethrin+TPP and 3.60 fold reduction in MFO in case of cypermethrin+PBO elucidated the role of esterases and mixed function oxidases in imparting resistance against synthetic pyrethroids. In vitro evaluation to check the efficacy of new generation insecticides against the population of S. litura revealed cyantraniliprole- 60 g a.i.ha - 1, spinosad- 100 g a.i.ha - 1, emamectin benzoate- 10 g a.i.ha - 1, indoxacarb- 75 g a.i.ha - 1, thiacloprid-120 g a.i.ha - 1, chlorantraniliprole-30 g a.i.ha - 1, flubendiamide- 48 g a.i.ha - 1 and spinetoram-60 g a.i.ha – 1 were found to be superior when compared to the conventional check quinalphos with per cent mortality of greater than 85 per cent in all the tested populations and hence all the above promising treatments were selected for field experiment. The field experiment was conducted in RBD with above new generation insecticides against the resistant population of S. litura resulted cent per cent reduction of field populations in emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb, spinetroam, chlorantraniliprole and flubenidiamide treatments. However, after second spray, cent per cent larval reduction was maintained in emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb and spinetoram treatments only. Similarly, lowest extent of leaf damage was noticed in spinetoram which was on par with cyantraniliprole, spinosad, emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb, chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide. The residues of promising insecticides viz., emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb, chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide dissipated with in three and ten days in amaranthus and no harvest time residues could be detected, revealing its safety for consumption. However, considering the eco-toxicological effects and the economic feasibility to the farmers, the insecticides chlorantraniliprole 30 g a.i.ha - 1, and flubendiamide 48 g a.i.ha - 1 at early stages, emamectin benzoate 10 g a.i.ha - 1, indoxacarb 75 g a.i.ha - 1 at later stages of crop near to harvest may be recommended to the farmers on rotational basis, based on mode of action.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on the nutritional requirements of the Indian elephant(Department of Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1979) Ananthasubramaniam, C R; KAU; Chandra, Menon KStimulated by the results of a digestion trial conducted previously in growing and adolescent elephants, an investigation involving, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus and energy balance studies was carried out in two young and two adult elephants fed palm leaf ad lib. at first (Trial 1) and subsequently at 75 per cent of the ad lib. in take (Trial 11) with a view to evolve feeding standards for the elephant for maintenance and growth. Prior to this investigation, the reliability of applying a formula based on body measurements to predict body weights of the elephants as accurately as possible for purposes of their scientific feeding and judicious treatment was examined in 20 animals of varying age, sex and weight. The nutritional status of the elephants under balance trials was assessed in terms of concentrations of some of the well – known blood constituents. From the overall results obtained, the salient inferences drawn were the following : 1. For predicting the body weights of the elephants, formulae devised on the basis of chest girth and neck girth measurements are found to be more accurate than those involving body length, height and chest girth. 2. Adult animals, whether fed palm leaf ad lib. or at restricted level, consume more feed and more dry matter and void more dung dry matter and total urinary solids, as compared with the young elephants under identical conditions. 3. Adult animals digest dry matter, crude protein and nitrogen – free – extract better than the young at both levels of intake, the differences between them in the digestibility of dry matter on restricted level of intake being significant (P < 0.05). Restriction of feed intake significantly reduces the digestibility of nitrogen – free – extract (P < 0.05) in young animals. 4. Adult animals consume daily more DCP and TDN as compared with the young animals at both levels of intake. Restricted feeding reduces the DCP and TDN intakes of both the adult and young animals, the TDN intakes per metabolic body size of both groups being significantly less than the same observed during ad lib. feeding (P , 0.01). The adult animals consume significantly more TDN as compared with the young on restricted feeding (P < 0.05). 5. The overall differences in nitrogen balance between the two groups and between the two trials are significant (P < 0.05). Adult animals register higher values for positive nitrogen balance as compared with the young on both levels of feeding. Restricted feeding reduces the nitrogen balances in both the groups. 6. Adult animals show significantly higher calcium balance as compared with the young on restricted level of feeding (P < 0.05). Between the two levels of intake, significant difference is observed in the case of the young (P < 0.05), the animals showing batter calcium balance on ad lib. feeding. 7. All animals, irrespective of group or level of intake, show negative balance for phosphorus. 8. Adult animals consume and digest gross energy better than the young in both the trials, the increase in the availability of digested energy per metabolic body size in the case of the adult animals in each trial being significant (P < 0.05). Restriction of feed intake significantly reduces the digested energy values in the case of both the groups (P < 0.01). 9. Dry matter, DCP, TDN, DE and ME requirements for the maintenance of the adult elephant are : 108g, 6g, 58g, 278 kcal and 237 kcal respectively per unit metabolic body size (kg.73) per day. 10. Dry matter, DCP, TDN, DE and ME requirements for the growth of the young elephant are : 142g, 7g, 335 kcal and 279 kcal respectively per unit metabolic body size (kg.73) per day. 11. The requirements of calcium for the maintenance and growth of the elephant are: 0.5g and 0.6g respectively per unit metabolic body size (kg.73) per day. 12. Palm leaf even when fed ad lib. does not supply enough phosphorus either maintenance or for growth. 13. Palm leaf even when fed at a restricted level provides adequate cobalt for Vitamin B12 synthesis and for other physiological purposes. 14. Feeding standards for the maintenance and growth of the elephant are formulated in terms of Dry matter, DCP, TDN, DE and ME values. 15. The concentrations of Vitamin B12 in blood plasma of the adult and young elephants are found to be on an average 18.05 and 16.94/ug/100 ml respectively. 16. Adult and young elephants fed palm leaf maintain sound nutritional status, adjudged from haematological values. The significance of the above inferences is discussed briefly. Summary of summary 1. Two formulae based on neck girth and chest girth measurements have been devised to predict the body weights of the elephants to 97 per cent accuracy. 2. It has been shown that whenever palm leaf forms the sole source of feed for the elephant, there is a need for a phosphorus supplement. 3. Feeding standards in terms of Dry matter, DCP, TDN, DE and ME for the maintenance and growth of the elephant have been evolved and recommended in the form of formulae. 4. The level of Vitamin B12 in the blood of the elephant has been reported for the first time.
