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Open Access
Maturity and post-harvest studies in mango (Mangifera indica Linn.)
(Department of Processing Technology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Jessy Kuriakose, M; KAU; Damodaran, V K
The present investigations were carried out in the College of Horticulture, during the year 1979-80. The objectives were to study (i) the growth and maturity of mango fruits in order to standardise the harvest indices in five varieties viz., Bennet Alphonso, Mundappa, Suwarnarekha, Olour and Neelum (ii) the effect of different storage methods on the shelf life of fruits harvested at three different stages (A,B and C) and (iii) the suitability of the varieties for canning. Studies on physic-chemical characters of the fruits throughout the period of maturation were conducted with the view to fix optimum time for harvest. This study brought out that the length, weight, specific gravity (except for Mundappa) reducing sugar, starch and T.S.S. contents could be taken as dependable maturity standard. Based on these parameters the maturity standards have been fixed for the five varieties studied. The growth of fruits by way of increased length, girth, weight and volume was maximum during the first four weeks of maturation. From a stage to full maturity the acidity showed a declining trend while starch content increased. The change in reducing sugar content was erratic throughout the period of maturation. Towards full maturity the moisture and ascorbic acid contents showed gradual decline whereas an increasing trend was observed in case of drymatter content. As maturity advanced, the rate of increase in carotene content also increased. To prolong the shelf life, the most effective method was to store fruits in polythene bags of 300 gauge thickness along with KMnO4 which gave a mean storage life of 25.5 days. Storage in 300 gauge polythene bags alone was also equally good. The more the thickness of polythene, the longer was the shelf life. Waxing of fruits was not be effective as storing fruits in 300 and 250 gauges polythene bags, in terms of shelf life, but the extent of reduction in weight at the end of storage life was least in this method. Waxing was also effective in retention of acidity as well as ascorbic acid content during storage. In this method the total sugar content of the ripe fruits was not appreciably affected compared to other methods except control. The waxed fruits on ripening had the same extent of increase in carotene content as those under the other methods. Waxed fruits at the end of storage period had significant increase in T.S.S. content as compared to storage in polythene bags 250 and 300 gauges as well as in polythene bags 300 gauges along with waxing or KMnO4 . Storage of fruits in polythene bags of 300 gauge thickness, at the end of storage period, resulted in reduction of acidity and T.S.S. content compared to waxing. Compared to the untreated fruits, there was more retention of ascorbic acid content in this method. In terms of storage life as well as quality of fruits at ripening, the best stage for harvest was found to be B stage. Among the five varieties studied Bennet Alphonso and Neelum had better storage life followed by Mundappa, Suwarnarekha and Olour respectively. The quality of ripe fruits varied with varieties. In terms of storage life as well as quality of fruits Neelum came best. In shelf life though Bennet Alphonso came second, in quality of ripe fruits Mundappa was the second best. Neelum was found to be most suitable variety for canning followed by Mundappa. Bennet Alpphonso was the least suitable.
Open Access
Socio-economic study of farmers in Irinjalakuda block in the command area of Peechi irrigation project
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Latha Bastine, C; KAU; Rajendran, D V
The study was undertaken with the following objectives, viz., to study the methods and practices followed for cultivation, the general, social and economic characteristics of the farmers in the study area, cost and income structure of the farm business, the resource use; and the savings, investment, assets and debts pattern. One hundred farm families were selected by two stage random sampling, from whom the relevant data were collected using a well structured schedule. The methods and practices followed for cultivation of different crops were found to be more or less the same in different parts of the block. Generally, two crops of paddy (Mundakan and Puncha), coconut, arecanut and banana were the major crops grown. Dependence on hired labour was high in the area. Tractor power was substituted for bullock power to a limited extent. Dependence of family labour was more in smaller size groups. The utilization of fertilizers was below the recommended levels. The per hectare use was found to decrease with increase in the size of the holdings and increase with increase in income. The cost of cultivation for Mundakan season was found to be lower than that of Puncha, mainly due to differences in cultivation operations. Eventhough yield was slightly higher, the cost per quintal was also higher during Puncha than Mundakan. Thus the study showed that Mundakan paddy was more profitable than Puncha due to lower cost of cultivation. Eventhough cost of cultivation was found to decrease with increase in size of holding no clearcut association was found between family income and cost of cultivation. Though the cultivation of coconut and banana resulted in high net returns they involved heavy investment also. Arecanut cultivation in the area was found to be in a declining stage. Expenditure on food did not show much difference among different holding size groups and income groups except in the highest income group and largest holding size group. Expenditure on costly food items like, fish, meat and milk showed a positive relationship with the size of holding and gross income of the families. Only the farmers in the higher income groups were able to meet the household expenditure from the net income obtained from crop production and livestock. The infrastructural facilities in the area were found to be satisfactory. There were sufficient credit, communication and marketing facilities in the area. But in some parts of the block, transport facilities are yet to be developed.
Open Access
Response of cucumber genotypes to ethephon application
(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Sadhan Kumar, P G; KAU; Peter, K V
Investigations were carried out during two seasons (October-January, 1981-82 and March-May, 1982) to find out the response of 20 Cucumis genotypes to four levels of ethephon (0,100, 200 and 300 ppm) at the Instructional Farm, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara. Ethephon caused significant reduction in length of main vine, nodes to first female flower, nodes to first fruit, seed number and flesh thickness. Nodes to first male flower and primary branches/plant were significantly increased. There was no significant effect of ethephon on fruit length, fruit weight and fruit volume during both the seasons. There was an increase in yield in CS 27 (326.62%) while definite reduction in yield was observed in CS 26 (42.53%), CS 43 (60.47%), CS 38 (60.79%), CS 51 (50.74%) and CS 31 (63.82%) during the first season. During second season there was no significant effect of ethephon on fruit yield. Effect of ethephon sprays on plant to alter vegetative characters is further confirmed in the present study. Despite reduction in seed number due to ethephon application, no appreciable change was observed for fruit weight, fruit volume and fruit length. This is a matter for worth investigation. Reduction is vine length and increase in primary branches could be attributed to effects of ethephon to effect the phenomenon of apical dominance. The study proved that response of Cucumis genotypes to ethephon is governed by genotype, season of cultivation and concentration of ethephon used.
Open Access
Foliar diagnosis, yield and quality of pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in relation to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Sushama, P K; KAU; Jose, A I
Pepper vines of variety, Panniyoor-1, of the NPK fertilizer trial maintained at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyoor, Canncanore District were selected for the collection of tissue samples under the present study during 1979-81. The experiment was laid out in a 33 factorial design in a randomized block design, confounding the effect of NP2K2 totally. In order to standardize the best leaf position for foliar diagnosis, the mature leaves of fruit bearing laterals were numbered from the youngest to the oldest, taking the youngest fully matured leaf as the first and they were collected separately. The most suitable season for the collection of leaf intended for foliar diagnosis was also standardized by drawing samples of first mature leaf at different stages of growth of the vine. The suitability of different types of stem of the plant such a runner shoot, top shoot, fruit bearing lateral and hanging shoot for tissue analysis was also examined. For studying the variations in the oleoresin content of berry as influenced by fertilizer nutrients, the berries were sampled at different stages of maturity. The first mature leaf better reflected variation in the levels of application of nitrogen to the vine. As the phosphorus and potassium contents of the first mature leaf established significant positive correlation with yield of pepper, it is recommended as an index for foliar diagnosis in pepper in relation to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium status of the vine. The period just prior to flushing is the most suitable season for the collection of leaf samples intended for foliar diagnosis. During this period, the first mature leaf is sensitive to application for different levels of nitrogen and its potassium content established significant positive correlation with yield. For assessing the phosphorus status of the vine, the runner shoot appeared to be a better tissue as its phosphorus content established a high degree of correlation with yield. As compared to other types of stem, the highest content of potassium was found in the fruit bearing laterals. The periods of maturity significantly influenced the phosphorus, potassium and oleoresin contents of the berry. Their contents increased from four to six months after flowering and then decreased. The graded doses of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and their interaction failed to influence the percentage of oleoresin content of pepper.
Open Access
Pattern of development of shank length in chicken
(Department of Statistics, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1982) Indirabai, T K; KAU; Surendran, P U
Shank length and body weight measurements on 30 male and 30 female chicks from each of White Cornish (WC) and White Plymouth Rock (WR) breed were utilized to study the pattern of development of shank length in chicken. The birds were reared for eight weeks in Kerala Agricultural University Poultry Farm under uniform management. Upto the end of three weeks uniformity could be seen in the pattern of growth of shank length of the four groups. Thereafter WR male had a lead over the rest. The growth pattern of body weight was not uniform in the groups from the beginning. At the end of eight weeks the growth pattern was found to differ between sexes and breeds. Uniformity in growth rates was found in females of the two genetic groups as also between WC male and WR female. All the other pairs were heterogeneous. High correlation between body weight and shank length revealed that longer shank length can be made a criterion for selection for higher body weight. Shank length at the end of the first week was found to be most suitable for this purpose. Shank length has high positive correlation with age. The method of comparison of growth rates recommended by Rao (1958) was found unsuitable for the present study. Among the functional forms examined Modified Exponential, Gompertz and Logistic were found to be unsuitable for expressing shank length as a function of age. Most suitable patterns for expressing shank as a function of age in weeks were found to be linear and exponential. Among these two exponential turned out to be better than the other.
Open Access
Production and marketing of pineapple in Trichur District
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Jesy Thomas, K; KAU; Mukundan, K
A study on the production and marketing of pineapple in Trichur district was conducted during March-April, 1982 to evaluate the costs and returns of pineapple production, the marketing costs and price spread as well as the problems faced by the cultivators. Simple random sampling was adopted for selecting the sample and fifty cultivators were surveyed by personal interview method. The total cost of cultivation per hectare of pineapple for four years for the district was found to be Rs.30334.92 and cost was highest for the first year being Rs.13289.92 (42.55 per cent).The major item of expenditure was human labour constituting about 59.32 per cent (Rs.17995) of the total costs. Expenditure on fertilizer accounted for 24.25 per cent (Rs.7356) and that for suckers 6.78 per cent (Rs.2056) for the district. With regard to the operation-wise cost of cultivation, manuring and earthing occupied a major share of 39.48 per cent (Rs.11976) and for weeding the expenditure was Rs.6656 (24.04 per cent). Pineapple starts yielding in the second year and maximum returns was found to obtain in the third year with Rs.18934 per hectare for the district. The returns in the second and fourth year were Rs.11626 and Rs.12476 respectively. Cost of production per quintal of pineapple fruits was highest in the second year (Rs.79.26) and lowest in the third year with Rs.54.82 for the district. The pay-back period was 2.77 years, with a benefit cost ratio of 1.31, net present worth of Rs.8258.09 and internal rate of return of 43.37 per cent. The number of suckers per hectare was the factor which was found to be significant in the regression analysis. The main marketing channel in the case of pineapple was producer Commission/agent wholesaler ----Retailer ---- consumer channel. The marketing efficiency assessed on the basis of price-spread and marketing costs revealed that there was a high price spread of Rs.94 per quintal and the producers got only 51.79 per cent of the consumer’s price, while wholesalers and retailers got 17.69 per cent and 20.77 per cent margins respectively. Pineapple was marketed as fresh fruit commonly, but the canning industries in Trichur make a number of canned products such as squash, slices, titbits etc. High cost of inputs, fluctuation in prices and improper marketing facilities etc. are the problems faced by the cultivators in this district. Non-availability of sufficient fruits to factories become a serious problem in the case of canning units.
Open Access
Studies on the microflora of stored pepper
(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Estelitta, S; KAU; Abi Cheeran
With a view to study the microflora in stored black pepper, a research project was carried out at the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara. It was also aimed at estimating the deterioration of the quality of stored black pepper in terms of its oleoresin, piperine and starch contents due to microbial infection and assessing the role of each micro-organisms in changing the quality of the product. The study revealed that the major chemical constituents of stored black pepper, namely, oleoresin, piperine and starch varied in different grades of black pepper. Slight variations in these quality constituents were observed according to the seasons of storage also. In all the seasons, association of microflora with all grades of black pepper was observed. The species of micro-organisms were not changed during seasons, but the population varied according to grade of black pepper and season of storage. The micro-organisms found were Aspergillus niger, A. candidus, A. nidulans, A. versicolor, curvularia lumata, penicillium citrinum, Fusarium moniliforme, Rhizopus nigricans and Bacterium (gram –ve). There was no growth of microflora in stored black pepper upto 66.8 per cent relative humidity, whereas profused growth was observed at saturation levels of humidity. Only Aspergillus spp. And penicillium citrinum could come up at a lower HUMIDITY LEVEL (75.6 per cent). In three quality constituents of black pepper viz., oleoresin, piperine and starch reduced considerably when the samples were inoculated with different micro-organisms at different levels of humidity. Reduction in the quality constituents was found corresponding to the increase in level of humidity as well as length of incubation period.
Open Access
Characterisation of soil organic matter in different soil types of Kerala
(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Usha, P B; KAU; Jose, A I
Large number of surface soils representing the different districts of the state were analysed in order to work out precise relationships between organic carbon, total nitrogen and available nitrogen in these soils. The soils were categorized into different groups based on soil texture and content of organic matter. Relationships between different soil properties applicable to the different categories of soil were then examined. Fractionation of soil organic matter was carried out in a limited number of soils. Also the distribution of elemental components of soil organic matter was studied in soils selected for the fractionation of organic matter. Observations on the general characteristics of soil revealed that the content of organic carbon, total nitrogen and available nitrogen showed an increasing trend with increase in acidity of soil. In general more organic carbon was seen in fine textured soils. The total and available nitrogen content of soil increased with increase in content of organic matter. The content of available nitrogen showed significant and positive correlation with total nitrogen. Since the C/N ratio increased with increase in content of organic carbon it was necessary to predict the total and available nitrogen content of soil based on precise regression equations rather than depending on a conversion factor. On an average 10.82 per cent of the nitrogen in soil was extracted as available nitrogen. The C/aN ratio was positively and significantly correlated with organic carbon and total nitrogen while it was negatively correlated with available nitrogen. On an average the percentage of humic acid, fulvic acid and humin in soil organic matter were 28.28, 36.51 and 35.21 respectively. Of the 28.28 per cent humic acid, 9.60 per cent (of organic matter) was represented by hymatomelanic acid and the remaining 18.68 per cent by the insoluble fraction of humic acid. Humic acid was found to be significantly and positively correlated with total organic carbon, total nitrogen, clay and fulvic acid. Of the total fulvic acid 12.35 per cent (of organic matter) was represented by beta humus and the remaining by the soluble fraction of fulvic acid. Fulvic acid was positively and significantly correlated with organic carbon, total nitrogen, humic acid and clay. Humic acid and fulvic acid maintained a constant proportion irrespective of the variation in content of total organic matter. Humin was also positively and significantly correlated with organic carbon and total nitrogen. The mean phosphorus, sulphur and potassium content of organic matter were 0.051, 6.96 and 0.32 per cent respectively. The C/org.P, C/org.K, C/org.S, N/org.P, N/org.K, N/org.S, Org.P/org.K, Org.P/org.S and Org.K/org.S ratios were 1672.8, 94.1, 19.23, 205.81, 9.77, 2.91, 0.07, 0.008 and 0.0073 respectively.
Open Access
Socio-economic study of farmers in Puzhakkal Block in command area of Peechi Irrigation Project
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Santha, A M; KAU; Rajendran, D V
An investigation on the socio- economic status of farmers in Puzhakkal block, forming a part of command area of Peechi Irrigation Project, was conducted in 1982. The main objectives were to study the methods and practices followed for cultivation, understand social and economic conditions of the farms, farm business structure and infrastructural facilities. Two stage random sampling was adopted for the study and data were collected from a sample of 100 farmers by personal interview. The data were tabulated and classified according to the size of holding and also gross income of the study. The size of holding worked out to 1.04 hectares on an average. The family size was found to be 6.35. The family members consisted of 51.18 per cent males and 48.82 per cent females. The literacy was found to be 96.53 per cent. The cropping intensity worked out to 135.68. The area irrigated was 68.94 per cent of the net area owned. The average investment on land, livestock, buildings etc. worked out to Rs.146, 534.20 per farm. On an average an amount of Rs. 1338.17 was invested per farm on implements and machinery. It was observed that local varieties were grown during Virippu and Mundakan. Punja is the major crop of paddy grown in ‘kole’ lands with larger area under high yielding varieties. The high yielding varieties in Punja recorded the highest cost of cultivation of Rs. 4869.33 per hectare and yield of 31.14 quintals on an average. Whereas for local varieties the highest yield recorded was 24.91 quintals in Punja with a cost of cultivation of Rs.4625.50. The cost of production was lowest for Virippu, Rs.87.70 per quintal and highest for local varieties in Punja, Rs. 119.80 per quintal. In terms of net returns from paddy cultivation, Mundakan recorded the highest Rs. 1542.81 per hectare. The utilisation of labour and fertilizers were more for high yielding varieties. The annual cost of maintenance of coconut was Rs. 9027.81 per hectare with a net income of Rs. 5261.49 per hectare. For arecanut the maintenance cost was Rs. 4575.74 per hectare per annum with a net income of Rs.3028.8 per hectare. The cost of cultivation of banana worked out to Rs. 26069.45 with a net profit of Rs. 12442.24 per hectare. The cost of maintenance of cross bred animals was worked out to Rs. 1874.50 per animal per year with an annual milk yield of 976 litres. Whereas for desi cows the annual maintenance cost was Rs. 1088.80 with a milk yield of 527.80 litres. The minimum area required by a typical farmer to live on agriculture as main occupation had been estimated as 1.83 hectares. The total annual household expenditure worked out to Rs.15661.10 per family having an average family size of 6.35. The gross income of the family was Rs.22132.51 on an average. The total savings per annum was worked out to Rs. 6471.41 per family on an average.

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