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ThesisItem Open Access Institutional intervention in marketing of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in Kerala(Department of Rural Marketing Management, College of Co-operation, Banking and Management, Vellanikkara, 2023-05-13) Vijayakumar, N; KAU; Ushadevi, K NIndigenous communities living in the forests depends on the forest resources like Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) for their survival and livelihoods. The dominance of the middlemen, lack of accessibility of the market and lack of awareness of the price of NTFPs were the main problems faced by tribals in the collection and marketing of NTFPs (Rawal, 2020). There is a growing market for NTFPs, but its large potential still needs to be tapped by both the collectors and the institutions involved. Since efforts have been going on for quite a long time, new agencies and institutions, have been established and programmes and schemes have been implemented to promote the NTFPs and thereby develop the tribal community. It is time that an assessment of these interventions be done to assess whether these interventions are within reach of the tribals, to what extent the policy measures of central and state government have positively affect the marketing of NTFPs and the livelihood of tribes collecting NTFPs, whether the institutions address the problems faced by the tribals and to what extent they succeeded in solving the issues related to marketing of NTFPs. In this context the present study entitled ‘Institutional intervention in marketing of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Kerala’ was undertaken to analyse the existing market structure of NTFPs, to examine the role of institutional intervention in promoting NTFPs, to examine the extent of awareness, accessibility and impact of institutional interventions among selected tribes and to analyse the problems faced by the selected tribes in the collection and marketing of NTFPs. This study will fulfil the research gap of the institutional contributions towards improving the livelihood of NTFPs collectors and would help the institutions to identify and prioritise the areas in need of their interventions. Both primary and secondary data were collected for the study. As per the data collected from the records of Scheduled Tribes Service Cooperative Society (STSCS) (2018-2019), it was found that Irular, Kattunayakan, Paniyan, and Kadar were the tribes mainly engaged in the collection of NTFPs. Among them Kattunayakan and Paniyan tribes are settled in Wayanad district, Irular tribe is settled in Palakkad district and Kadar tribe is mainly settled in Thrissur district. Through stratified random sampling method, 204 tribals collecting NTFPs, from these four tribes were selected. With respect to the selection of institutions, all the categories of the institutions involved in promoting NTFPs collectors based in Kerala state were selected with a total sample size of 12 viz Kerala Forest and Wildlife Department (KFD), STSCS, Tribal co-operative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED), Kerala State Federation of SC/ST Development Cooperative Ltd (SC/ST Federation), Scheduled Tribes Development Department (STDD), Kerala State Development Corporation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (KSDC-ST/SC), College of Forestry (CoF), Kerala Institute for Research Training and Development Studies for SC & ST (KIRTADS), Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Kerala Forest Development Corporation (KFDC) and National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEDB). Data from tribals were collected through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method, by using semi-structured interview schedule. Primary data from the institutions were collected from officials of the institutions by using pre-tested structured interview schedule. Secondary data were collected from annual reports, and official websites of selected institutions. Percentage analysis, pair-wise ranking and seasonal calendar were used to analyse the existing market structure of NTFPs. The role of institutional interventions in promoting NTFPs was examined with the help of Venn Diagram. Awareness was examined with the help of percentage analysis. Mobility Map and Impact Diagram were used to examine the accessibility and impact of institutional interventions respectively. Problems of tribals were identified by using Garret Ranking and by drawing ranking ladder. From the analysis of existing market structure of NTFPs in Kerala, it was found that tribals, SC/ST Federation, STSCS, TRIFED, and KFD are the major players in the market. In addition to this the presence of institutions like STDD, KSDC SC/ST, CoF, KIRTADS, KFRI are also found in promoting NTFPs through conducting training, workshops, exhibitions, promoting NTFPs through social media etc. Tribal community are the sellers and STSCS, KFD and TRIFED are the main buyers. A common market structure for NTFPs does not exist in Kerala .An oligopsony market structure was identified where institutions were present and monopolistic competition was observed in the absence of institutions in certain tribal settlements. The STSCS main activity is regularly procuring NTFPs from tribals and marketing NTFPs with the help of the SC/ST Federation through auction cum quotation and negotiation. Eco-Development Committees (EDC) and Vana Samrakshana Samithi (VSS) of KFSD collect NTFPs from tribals and market through Vanasree eco shops, Vanasree e-portal and exhibitions under the brand name Vanasree. Institutions provide a pool of information to help the tribals to undertake their operations more systematically and scientifically. Majority of the tribals prefer to sell the collected NTFPs to STSCS. They had expressed, better price, spot payment, flexible payment options, bulk procurement and regular consumers as the reasons for preferring STSCS over other institutions. Among the institutions TRIFED offers an effective product differentiation support. TRIFED had trained the tribals to produce seven value added products from honey. KFD have an effective supply chain logistics which facilitates the prompt delivery of the product to the customers. . Majority of the tribal community consider KFD, CoF, STDD, and STSCS as important institutions. Out of these they considered STSCS as effective in rendering the service. Institutions had provided product development and market development supports to tribals in additions to the implementation of various schemes of the central and state government. However, the services and supports of the institutions are not benefitting the tribals to the expected level due to their low level of awareness The awareness of the tribals with respect to the interventions of the institutions are very low as they had not received any awareness programme on services offered by the institutions till now. The officials from the majority institutions were not visiting the colony and disseminating the necessary information to the tribals. Most tribals mentioned the forest office, STSCS, and its depot as being conveniently accessible to them. Many institutions that assisted NTFPs collectors (tribals) were far away from the colony, making it difficult for them to access these institutions. The study brought out that institutional interventions had resulted in increasing tribals income, reducing school dropouts, increasing the number of women collectors, reducing tribals debt, and tribals migrations. The major problems faced by the selected tribals with respect to collection of NTFPs were negative interactions with wild animals, inadequate availability of NTFPs in the forest and low price availability of NTFPs. Lack of guidance and support from government officials for marketing of NTFPs, no institutional support/follow up after training programme and long distance to market place cause considerable interruption in marketing of NTFPs. The study brought out the need for certain policy interventions which will help to improve the lively hood of NTFPs collectors. Many marketing channels exist in Kerala for marketing NTFPs and the procurement price and selling price differs based on the channels. If a uniform marketing channel can be created uniform pricing of the NTFPs would be possible.. Even though most of the selected institutions were conducting training programme the intended benefits are not reaching to tribal communities due to the lack of follow up measures. It would be better if institutions arrange follow-up programmes and making monthly visit to tribal settlements. This would help them to sell NTFPs as value added products and build a good relationship with the institutions. As the tribals were unaware of much information, the timely communication of various programmes, services and implementation of schemes etc is necessary. Institutions should take utmost care in this respect. It is difficult for tribals to access the services of institutions, as tribals were situated far away from the institutions and they don’t have vehicle or public transport services. Therefore, it is suggested that institutions should visit the colony monthly to provide their services and identify the problems of the tribals. Inadequate availability of NTFPs in the forest will make a negative impact in their collection and income. Arrangement for clearing the forest every month from the part of the Forest Department will help to address this issue. Addressing these suggestions will help to make the existing interventions of institutions more effective and bring out better reflection on the socio economic upliftment of tribals in Kerala.ThesisItem Open Access Identification of genetic stock for drought tolerance and candidate gene analysis in cocoa(Theobroma cacao L.)(Department of plantation,spices,medicinal and aromatic crops, college of agriculture ,Vellanikkara, 2023-09-21) Suchithra, M.; KAU; Suma, BWater deficit stress is considered as one of the most limiting factor for production in cocoa. Preliminary efforts have been made in Kerala Agricultural University to identify drought tolerant cocoa genotypes. The present study was an attempt made to identify the cocoa genotypes and hybrids that can tolerate drought condition. The study was conducted at Department of Plantation crops and spices, College of Agriculture (CoA) and Cocoa Research Centre and College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Thrissur. Thirty exotic genotypes and six pre-released hybrids were taken as materials for the study. They were budded on 6 month old rootstock of seedling raised from polyclonal gardens. GIV 18.5 (progeny of pods from Nileshwar) identified susceptible genotype was used as check in the experiment. Five month old budded plants of thirty exotic cocoa genotypes and six hybrids along with check variety were subjected to drought screening by following gravimetric method. Control plants were maintained at fully irrigated condition under 100 per cent field capacity. Field capacity was maintained at 40 per cent for stress condition. Based on the percentage of retained leaves genotypes and hybrids were categorised as highly tolerant (more than 70% leaves retained), tolerant (40-70% leaves retained), susceptible (10-40% leaves retained) and highly susceptible (less than 10% leaves retained). Various physiological and biochemical parameters related to drought were analyzed. The physiological parameters, relative water content, chlorophyll stability index, membrane stability, photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content were recorded high in tolerant and highly tolerant genotypes and hybrids whereas these parameters were comparatively low in susceptible and check variety. The control plants at 100 per cent field capacity recorded high value for all these parameters. However in terms of transpiration rate a reverse trend was observed among genotypes and hybrids. Low transpiration rate was recorded in highly tolerant and tolerant hybrids whereas ii susceptible genotypes and hybrids had high transpiration rate under stress condition. The control plants under fully irrigated condition of 100 per cent field capacity also had high transpirational rate. This indicated the ability of tolerant genotypes and hybrids to conserve water during stress. The leaf temperature did not shown any significant variation among the genotypes and hybrids studied under both the field capacity level. In case of biochemical parameters, proline content, glycine betaine content and superoxide dismutase activity were found to be high in tolerant and highly tolerant genotypes and hybrids and was low in susceptible and check variety. The control plants kept under 100 per cent filed capacity level shown less values for all these parameters. However, all the plants showed reduced nitrate reductase activity under drought stress. The control plants recorded high nitrate reductase activity at 100 per cent field capacity level. Correlation studies showed that all physiological and biochemical parameters except transpiration rate and leaf temperature have positive correlation with percentage of leaves retained. Effect of these parameters on percentage of leaves retained was estimated using path analysis. Parameters having direct effect on leaf retention were proline, nitrate reductase activity, SOD, glycine betaine, cell membrane stability and relative water content. These characters were analyzed for their genetic parameters and it was found that all these characters are having high heritability and genetic gain. D 2 statistics analysis revealed that the 30 genotypes and 6 hybrids along with check were grouped into 6 clusters indicating the presence of diversity for different traits. Four different isolation methods were compared in this experiment to identify the best method that could produce high-quality total RNA free from contaminants and genomic DNA. RNA obtained through the SDS- tertiary butanol method (Gesteira et al., 2003) has high quantity and quality, followed by the modified SDSphenol method (Deepa et al., 2014) in both fresh and frozen leaves. iii The transcriptome of highly drought tolerant exotic genotype (T85/799) and highly drought sensitive check variety CCRP 5 was analysed using mRNA sequencing under control (100% FC) and drought stress condition (40% FC). Drought has up-regulated 1540 and 1148 DEGs and downregulated 1502 and 1250 DEGs respectively in tolerant and sensitive libraries. The PCA scatter plot shows that replicates of the well watered samples (control) of highly drought tolerant genotype and drought susceptible check variety CCRP 5 form distinct groups highlighting differences between the two genotypes. Volcano plot depicted the significance of differentially expressed genes in control and drought stress treated samples of highly tolerant and susceptible genotype. In both the tolerant and susceptible genotypes, the majority of the genes within the biological process category were linked to GO terms that fall under the subcategories of "metabolic process," "cellular process," and "single organism process." “Enzyme catalytic activity”, “water channel activity”, “binding” and “transporter activity” were the most abundant terms in molecular function category in both the genotypes under stress. There were 17 pathways significantly enriched (FDR-adjusted p-value < 0.05) in tolerant genotype for upregulated genes and the most enriched pathways including metabolic pathways (178 genes) followed by biosynthesis of secondary metabolites (121 genes), phenyl propanoid biosynthesis (29 genes), carbon metabolism (29 genes), glyoxylate and decarboxylate metabolism (16 genes), MAPK signalling pathway plant (14 genes) and starch and sucrose metabolism etc. Most of the Transcription Factors (TFs) identified families were enriched in, B3, bHLH, WRKY, ARF, ARR B, FAR, LBD, MADS and ERF. These TFs could be grouped into 10 families. The major upregulated genes families in tolerant genotype includes protein kinase, protein phosphatase type 2c, zing finger proteins, laccase gene, cytokinin dehydrogenase, cytochrome p450, galactinol synthase, NAC Domain protein, peroxidase, protein ubiquitin E3 ligase, mannitol dehydrogenase, fatty acid desaturase, UDP glycosyl transferase, Aquaporin PIP, Glutathione dependent genes, iv cellulose synthase and heat shock proteins etc.The major upregulated genes families in susceptible genotype includes LEA protein, PSII protein, peroxisomal membrane proteins, ABC transporter, ABA hydrolyse, phenyl alanine n-monoxygenase, tyrosine carboxylase, plastocyanin, trehalose phosphate phosphatase and expansin etc. RNA-Seq analysis showed that highly drought tolerant exotic genotype (T85/799) activated more number of drought responsive genes than drought sensitive check variety CCRP 5. Several drought-responsive genes were upregulated in the tolerant genotype such as those encoding TFs, cytochrome 450, and membrane transporters, and those associated with carbohydrate metabolism and flavonoid biosynthesis. These genes might confer drought tolerance in this cocoa genotype at the molecular level. Identified drought- responsive genes and metabolic pathways were targets for future studies in order to understand the molecular mechanism of drought tolerance in cocoa. Physiological and biochemical parameters also indicated the better performance of the tolerant genotype over the susceptible genotype under drought stress conditions. These results were a first step to understanding the molecular mechanisms of drought tolerance in cocoa and lay a foundation for its genetic improvement.ThesisItem Open Access Small Grower tea production-a comparative economic analysis of Kerala and Tamil Nadu(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2023-02-09) Manoj Kumar C.; KAU; Anil KuruvilaTea is the queen of beverages and a commodity of commercial significance. India accounts for about 23 per cent of the area under tea in the world and contributes 21 per cent of the global tea production. India's share in global tea exports in 2021 was 10.18 per cent. The Tea Board of India defines small tea growers as those having areas up to 10.12 hectares and without any processing facility. Small tea growers constitute an integral part of the Indian tea industry. Out of the total tea produced by small tea growers in India, Assam accounted for the highest share of about 49 per cent followed by West Bengal (31%), Tamil Nadu (12%) and Kerala (6.42%) respectively. In this context, a comparative economic analysis of the small grower tea production in Tamil Nadu and Kerala was conducted with the specific objectives viz., to analyze the economics and efficiency of small grower tea production; to study marketing of small grower tea production and identify constraints faced by the small tea growers in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The study was based on primary data collected from small tea growers. Sixty farmers were randomly selected from each state based on multi-stage sampling method. The Nilgiris district was purposively selected as it accounts for 80 per cent of the area under tea cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Idukki and Wayanad districts were selected from Kerala as these districts accounted for 70 per cent and 23 per cent share of the area under tea cultivation in the state, thus making a total sample size of 120. Data was also collected from 20 market intermediaries from each state including green leaf agents, Self Help Groups, Primary Producer Societies, ‘Bought Leaf Factories’ and Farmer Producer Organizations, thus making a total sample size of 40.ThesisItem Open Access Management of calcium, magnesium and boron deficiency for enhancing yield and quality in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture ,Padanakkad, 2022-04-28) Anjitha K.; KAU; Sailaja kumari M SThe investigation entitled ‘Management of calcium, magnesium and boron deficiency for enhancing yield and quality in chilli’ was carried out at Instructional farm, Nileshwar, College of Agriculture Padannakkad, with an objective to develop nutrient management practices for mitigating calcium, magnesium and boron deficiency and to evaluate its effect on growth, yield and quality parameters. The field experiment was carried out during December 2020 to May 2021. The experiment was carried out with chilli variety Anugraha, in randomized block design with ten treatments and three replications. Treatment combinations were T1(KAU POP + lime (based on soil test)), T2 (T1 + 125 kg gypsum per hectare), T3 (T1 + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare), T4 (T1 + 125 kg gypsum per hectare + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare), T5 (T1 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T6 (T2 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T7 (T3 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T8 (T4 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)), T9 (KAU POP + dolomite (based on soil test)) and T10 (T9 + foliar application of borax (0.2%)). Soil application of amendments were done as a single dose and foliar nutrition was given four times in a 20 days interval. Analysis of experimental results showed that various treatments showed significant effect on growth characters, fruit quality parameters as well as nutrient content in both soil and plant, over KAU POP recommendation. Significant positive effect of treatments on plant root characters and total dry matter production was observed whereas plant height and days to 50% flowering were found to be non significant. Among the treatments, maximum tap root length (13.50 cm), root volume (23.23 cm3 ), root shoot ratio (0.16) and total dry matter production (2694.65 kg ha-1 ) were recorded in T8 (KAU POP + lime application based on soil test) +125 kg gypsum per hectare + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare + foliar application of borax (0.2%). Various treatments showed significant influence on yield and yield attributes. Maximum fruit weight (37.16 g) and total fruit yield (4456.79 kg ha-1 ) was also observed in T8 and in case of fruit yield, it was significantly superior to all other treatments. Combined application of gypsum, magnesium sulphate and borax were effective and maximized fruit yield. 94 Soil analysis was carried out at flowering and harvest wherein, the treatments showed significant effect on soil pH, EC, available potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese and zinc content whereas available nitrogen, phosphorus, copper and boron were not influenced by treatments. Addition of calcium and magnesium sources significantly increased available calcium and magnesium content in soil. Among the various treatments, the highest available calcium was recorded in T8 and was on par with T2, T6 and T4 at flowering. Highest available magnesium content was recorded in T9 and T10 at flowering and harvest respectively. Analysis of Index leaves at flowering and total plant analysis at harvest were carried out and it was found that plant nutrient content was significantly influenced by treatments. Significant effect of various treatments on plant nutrients except nitrogen and phosphorus was observed. Foliar application of borax significantly improved boron content in plants. Fruit quality parameters such as capsaicin, oleoresin, ascorbic acid and shelf life and total nutrient content were analysed and results showed significant positive response to treatments. Analysis of nutrient content in fruits showed that primary nutrients mainly, nitrogen and potassium, secondary nutrients and micronutrients in fruits were significantly influenced by various treatments. The treatment, T8 (KAU POP + lime based on soil test) +125 kg gypsum per hectare + 80 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare + foliar application of borax (0.2%)) recorded highest capsaicin (0.352 %), oleoresin (11.00 %), ascorbic acid (96.83 mg 100 g-1 ) and maximum shelf life (13.66 days) in chilli. The results obtained from the experiment revealed the significant influence of soil amendments over KAU POP recommendation and it can be concluded that combined application of gypsum, magnesium sulphate and borax was effective for increasing fruit yield and quality in chilliThesisItem Open Access Controlling seedling height of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) transplants using plant growth regulators(Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022-04-28) Anu Latha Robi; KAU; C NarayanankuttyCowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) is an annual leguminous vegetable crop. It is grown throughout india for its tender green pods used as vegetable. Green cowpea seeds are boiled as a fresh vegetable or may be canned or frozen. The beans are nutritious and provide complementary proteins to cereals diets. Seedlings like cowpea, cucurbits having lanky growth growing in polyhouses is an undesirable quality, especially in plugs intended for mechanized planting and long distance transport. Seed treatment with growth retardants is an effective method for controlling seedling height .However limited studies have been conducted in vegetable crops The present study was undertaken with the objectives of controlling seedling height of vegetable cowpea and to assess the field performance of treated seedlings. The experiment was conducted at the Centre for Hi-Tech Horticulture and Precision farming, Vellanikkara KAU, Thrissur during the year 2020-2021 In seedling stage, highest germination was recorded in control treatment on 5th and 10th days after sowing (89%) and (91%) respectively in Vellayani Jyothika. Minimum germination percentage was recorded in Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm on 5th and 10th day after sowing (64.3%) and (66.0%) respectively in cowpea genotype Vellayani Jyothika. Significantly lower germination percentage was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm on 5th and 10th day after sowing (70.0%) (72%) in the genotype Kashi Kanchan. In both the genotypes there were no significant difference between the treatments on 15th days after sowing. Paclobutrazol treatment took more number of days for emergence of seedling up to the first node compared to control treatment ie Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm (8.13) and (8.00) respectively in both the genotypes. Highest shoot length was recorded in control treatment on 5th, 10th and 15 th days after germination in both the genotypes. Significantly lower shoot length was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm irrespective of the number of days after germination. Growth retardants in general reduce root growth, shoot weight and root weight of the seedlings. In both the genotypes (Vellayani Jyothika and Kashi Kanchan) significantly lower root length, shoot weight and root weight was obtained in Paclobutrazol treatments compared to non-treated control. Height of seedling up to the first node was directly linked to shoot length. In both the genotypes of the cowpea significantly lower shoot length was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm (4.09) and (4.03) respectively. Paclobutrazol treated seedlings had dark green leaves when compared to other growth regulator and control treatments on 5th ,10th and 15th days after germination. In both the cowpea genotypes, when compared to other growth retardant and control treatments highest stem girth of the seedlings was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm on 5th (3.19 mm) 10th (3.45mm) and 15th (3.7mm) in Vellayani Jyothika and on 5th (3.3mm ) 10th (3.4mm) and 15th (3.8mm) in Kashi Kanchan. There were no significant difference between the treatments on 5th (2) and 15th days (7-8) after germination in both the genotypes. The total chlorophyll content and carotenoid content was recorded highest in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol treatments on seedling stage. Minimum auxin content and gibberellic acid contents were observed in Paclobutrazol treatments. In the field experiment, in both the cowpea genotypes, plant growth regulator Ethrel recorded maximum plant height where as in Vellayani Jyothika minimum plant height was recorded in Cycocel@ 50 ppm (112.40 cm) .In Kashi Kanchan lowest plant height was recorded in Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm (33.06 cm) in Kashi Kanchan. In vellayani Jyothika highest internodal length was recorded in Ethrel @100 ppm (3.13 cm) and Ethrel @50 ppm (3.04 cm). Minimum was recorded in Paclobutrazol@ 200 ppm (2.63 cm). In the genotype Kashi Kanchan maximum internodal length was recorded in Ethrel@ 200 ppm (3.34 cm) and minimum was recorded in Cycocel @ 100 ppm (2.53cm). Highest number of primary branches was recorded in treatments receiving Paclobutrazol @ 200 ppm which was on par with Paclobutrazol @ 100 ppm compared to control in Vellayani Jyothika. In Kashi Kanchan there were no significant differences found between the treatments. Growth retardants had significant effect on the viz days to first flowering, days to first harvest and crop duration. Early flowering results in early harvesting of pods. Plant growth retardant Cycocel @ 200 ppm (41day) and Cycocel @ 25 ppm (36.80 days) recorded earliest flowering in the field in both the genotypes. In both the genotypes delayed flowering and maximum crop duration was recorded in Paclobutrazol treatments. Pod length and pod girth are related with pod weight. Ethrel treatment had highest pod length and pod girth compared to control .The higher number of flowers, pod girth and pod length contributed to production of more number of pods which in turn resulted in higher yield per plant. In both the cowpea genotypes, highest number of pods per plant and yield per plant was recorded in Ethrel treatments (Ethrel 100 ppm) in Vellayani Jyothika followed by Paclobutrazol treatment (Paclobutrazol 100 ppm) where as in Kashi Kanchan Paclobutrazol 100 ppm was on par with Ethrel 100 ppm. From the above study it could be concluded that, Paclobutrazol 100 ppm seed treatment was effective in controlling seedling height as well to obtain good yield in vegetable cowpea.ThesisItem Embargo Genetic diversity analysis for nutrient efficiency and identification of nutrient responsive genes in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2023-02-10) Swathy Sivan; KAU; Arya, KThe present study entitled “Genetic diversity analysis for nutrient efficiency and identification of nutrient responsive genes in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)” was carried out in the Department of Plant breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani and Division of Crop Improvement, ICAR-CTCRI, Sreekariyam, during 2019-2022. The study was undertaken to screen and characterize N and K-efficient genotypes in cassava and identify the traits contributing to nutrient efficiency and study their gene expression. Thirty genotypes of cassava comprising of landraces, released varieties and pre-release accessions from ICAR-CTCRI and KAU were taken for the study. Field evaluation was done to identify low input nutrient efficient lines where analysis of variance revealed significant difference among the genotypes for all the characters studied except the girth of tuber. High GCV, PCV, heritability and genetic advance were observed for traits like tuber yield, N and K efficiency, plant height, number of leaves, number of branches, stem N and K content. Tuber yield was positively correlated to N and K efficiency, plant height, leaf and stem weight, stem girth, mean weight of tubers, number of nodes, girth and length of tubers, while negatively correlated to tuber starch and dry matter content. Path analysis showed that tuber length gave highest positive direct effect on yield followed by number of tubers, number of leaves, tuber starch content, plant height and nitrogen efficiency. Diversity studies grouped the genotypes into eleven clusters and the characters that gave the maximum contribution to divergence were tuber dry matter content, N and K efficiency. Root studies on thirty genotypes revealed that root traits like number of nodal roots, basal roots, adventitious roots, storage roots and root length displayed significant positive correlations with N and K efficiency. Evaluation of five highly nutrient efficient genotypes at the three levels of fertilizers (0%, 25% and 50% of the recommended dose of fertilizers) showed overall significance for traits like plant height, the number of leaves retained, stem weight per plant, girth of the stem, tuber yield, length of tuber, stem K content, tuber K content, total N and K uptake, N and K efficiency. The highest yielder was KBH 18 followed by 8S501-2. Maximum N efficiency was observed for KBH18 followed by 15S409, while maximum K efficiency was recorded for 8S501-2 followed by 15S409. Results showed that from 0 to 25 % there is an escalation in tuber yield as well as N and K efficiency, while the values at 25 and 50% are on par. All the selected four genotypes showed significant superiority over the K efficient check variety – Sree Pavithra – in terms of tuber yield, N efficiency and K efficiency. The study identified nine nutrient responsive genes in cassava which includes NRT1, NRT3, NLP1, GPT2, AMT1, TAR2 for nitrogen and KUP3, KUP4, KUP8 for potassium. Expression studies done using these genes in contrasting genotypes for N and K efficiency raised under field conditions showed significant upregulations and downregulations in their expression for efficient and less efficient genotypes. Allele mining for allelic variations in contrasting genotypes (15S409 and Export kappa) for two genes (AMT2 and NTR3) didn’t show much significant variation. Although SNP differences were observed for NRT3 gene, further functional studies are required to confirm this result. The study identified three main nutrient efficient genotypes viz., KBH18, which was the highest yielder, highest in N efficiency and third highest in K efficiency, 8S501-2, which was second highest in yield, highest in K efficiency, third highest in N efficiency and also exhibited early bulking and 15S409, which was the third highest yielder, second highest in N efficiency & K efficiency. The superior genotypes identified in the present study can be subjected to field trials for confirming their superiority and release as a variety.ThesisItem Open Access Soil test crop response studies in cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) in lateritic soils of Kerala(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2022) Ayisha, V V; KAU; Rajalekshmi, KCluster bean, commonly known as guar, is a legume crop cultivated as a vegetable, green manure and forage crop. India is the leading producer of cluster bean in the world and accounts for around 80 per cent of global production. The generalised application of fertilizers by farmers result in under or over fertilization, lowering production and profitability while also polluting the environment. So the emphasis on soil test based balanced fertilizer recommendation has become more pertinent in the current scenario of high fertilizer costs and yield maximisation programmes. Hence, the investigation entitled “Soil test crop response studies in cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) in lateritic soils of Kerala” was undertaken. The study was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara in lateritic soils (Ultisol) in the STCR field during 2020-2021 with the objective of developing soil test based fertilizer prescription equation for cluster bean using inorganic fertilizers alone and with the combined use of organic manures. A fertility gradient experiment was conducted to create soil fertility gradient in the field by applying graded doses of N, P and K fertilizers and raising fodder maize var. CO1. After the development of fertility gradient, the main STCR experiment was conducted in the same field with the test crop, cluster bean var. Pusa naubahar. The treatment structure consisted of four levels of nitrogen (0, 10, 20 and 40 kg ha-1 ), four levels of phosphorous (0, 30, 60 and 120 kg ha-1 ) and four levels of potassium (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha-1 ) along with three levels of FYM (0, 15 and 25 t ha-1 ). The basic parameters such as nutrient requirement (NR) and contributions of nutrients from soil (CS), fertilizer (CF) and FYM (COM) were computed from the field experimental data. The nutrient requirements (NR) for cluster bean were worked out as 0.68, 0.05 and 0.22 kg N, P2O5 and K2O to produce one quintal yield. The contributions from soil (CS) were estimated as 9.84, 2.29 and 1.99 per cent of N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. The contributions from fertilizer (CF) were calculated as 90.90, 3.29 and 10.82 per cent and that from FYM (COM) were 7.17, 1.92 and 2.96 per cent for N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. From the above basic data, fertilizer prescription equation for specific yield targets of cluster bean in the lateritic soils were derived as follows, NPK alone: FN = 0.74*T - 0.11*SN FP2O5 = 1.47*T – 1.59*SP FK2O = 2.05*T- 0.22*SK NPK + FYM (IPNS) FN = 0.74*T - 0.11*SN – 0.08*ON FP2O5 = 1.47*T – 1.59*SP – 1.34*OP FK2O = 2.05*T - 0.22*SK – 0.33*OK Where, FN, FP2O5 and FK2O = Fertilizer N, P2O5 and K2O in kg ha-1 T = Yield target in q ha-1 SN, SP and SK = STV for available N, P and K in kg ha-1 . ON, OP and OK = Amount of N, P and K supplied through FYM in kg ha-1 . The multiple regression model calibrated with yield as dependent variable and soil test results and inorganic fertilizer doses as independent variables had 62.5 per cent predictability. The yield of cluster bean increased with the application of NPK alone and IPNS viz. NPK plus FYM treatment and the magnitude of increase was higher under IPNS over NPK alone. The study is useful to adjust fertilizer doses based on yield target and available resources of organic manure with the farmers. The equations developed for cluster bean should be tested in places with similar agro climate and soil situations for validation.ThesisItem Open Access Gene action and gene expression analysis in yardlong bean(Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis(L.) Verdcourt) for drought tolerance(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022) Rahana, S N; KAU; Beena ThomasYard long bean (Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdcourt) is a highly remunerative legume vegetable of Kerala. Due to climate change and erratic rainfall, in summer season the crop growth and pod production is heavily affected by moisture stress. Development of high yielding varieties of yard long bean with drought tolerance is essential for its sustainable production. In this context, the present study entitled "Gene action and gene expression analysis in yard long bean (Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdcourt) for drought tolerance" was carried out in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, with an objective to identify drought tolerant genotype from the available germplasm and to understand the nature and magnitude of gene action and gene expression involved in the inheritance of drought tolerance in yard long bean. The study comprised four experiments. First experiment dealt with the seedling stage evaluation of 100-yard-long bean genotypes for drought tolerance in field. The moisture stress was imposed by withholding irrigation and later irrigation was restored in order to ensure the survival of the tolerant lines. The results of the analysis showed significant variations among genotypes. Out of the 100 genotypes screened, 15 drought tolerant genotypes were identified based on their better performance in terms of high RLW, low PWP, more number of days for reaching critical stress level and high recovery percentage. The genotypes identified were G1 (Acc 5), G5 (Acc 1339), G6 (Adoor local), G14 (Anchal local II) G15 (Aranmula local), G24 (Elamadu local), G36 (Kattampally local), G42 (Kollam local), G45 (Kottarakara local), G46 (Kottayam local), G50 (Kulashegarapuram local), 051 (Kulathupuzha local), G60 (Muttathukonam local), G74 (Nilamcl local) and G89 (Pongamoodu local). The fifteen selected genotypes from the first experiment were evaluated for drought tolerance in the second experiment by imposing moisture stress at the reproductive stage. Based on the biometric and physiological evaluations, the top seven genotypes with high yield and drought tolerance A4 (Anchal local II), A5 (Aranmula local), A7 (Kattampally local). All (Kulashegarapuram local), A13 (Muttathukonam local), A14 (Nilamel local), and A15 (Pongamoodu local) were selected as parents for further hybridization in experiment in. In the third experiment, LxT crosses were performed by using seven selected tolerant genotypes as lines with three popular yard long bean varieties as testers to generate twenty one hybrids. The genetic analysis of hybrids and parents were evaluated based on eight morphological and eight physiological parameters. Mean performance, combming ability, gene action and heterosis were estimated. Based on the mean performance and gca effects, L4 (Kulashegarapuram local) and L3 (Kattampally local) are identified as outstanding general combiners and can be exploited as parents for drought tolerance breeding in yard long bean. Three superior crosses, Kattampally local x Vellayani Jyothika (L3 x T3), Nilamel local X Lola (L6 X T2) and Kulashegarapuram local x Lola (L4 x T2) were identified as promising combinations for drought tolerance and yield xmder water stress. In the final experiment quantitative real time PCR was conducted to analyze the gene expression of drought responsive genes in tolerant hybrids and parents. The elevated expression of DREBs and NCEDl genes in tolerant hybrids and genotypes in gene expression analysis reflects the increased drought tolerance ability of those genotypes. The gene expression analysis was in conformity with the field studies. All the hybrids mamfested significant amount of dominance variance for commercial exploitation. Existence of significant amoimt of dominance variance and non-additive gene action suggests that hybridization as the best strategy for improving the drought tolerance character in yard long bean. The identified genotypes can be used for isolation of purelines with enhanced drought tolerance and the transgressive segregants from the identified crosses can be used for the development of drought tolerant high yielding cultivars in the fixture. The work can be continued with the identified genotypes and crosses for the development of climate smart drought tolerant varieties of yard long bean.ThesisItem Open Access Genetic diversity of Dimocarpus longan Lour., in Southern Western Ghats(Department of Forest Biology and Tree Improvement,College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2022) Devika, P S; KAU; Manju Elizabeth, PLongan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.), is an important commercially cultivated fruit tree, belonging to the family Sapindaceae. It is commonly known as dragon-eye. In Kerala, it is known by the names chempoovam, mullai etc. It is widely cultivatedin many Asian countries like China, Thailand, and Taiwan etc. Recently many other countries including India, Sri Lanka etc. have started cultivating longan tree as a commercial fruit tree. Longan is used as a traditional medicine in China due to its high medicinal and nutraceutical value. The global demand for longan fruit has hiked rapidly due to its sweet taste and nutritional value. Fruit consist of a white edible juicy aril which is surrounded by a leathery pericarp. The fruit is rich in various bioactive polyphenols, vitamin C, volatile compounds, minerals, amino acids, proteins, fats, carbohydrates etc. Longan leaf, fruit pericarp, seed and pulp were used for extracting various polyphenols. Extracts from various parts of longan have shown pharmaceutical properties like antioxidance, anti-tyrosinase, anti-cancerous, anti-glycated, immunomodulatory activity, antihypertensive etc. Thus the importance of fruit can also be emphasized due to its richness in nutritional value. The longan tree is a subtropical fruit tree native to the southern regions of China and Indo-Burma. D. longan is indigenous to India's Western Ghats, ranging from Konkan to Tinnevelly. Other distributions in India include Eastern Bengal and Western Peninsular regions. In the Western Ghats region of Kerala, longan is a species widely distributed in evergreen forests. There is a small distribution in the semi-evergreen forests of Kerala as well. The diversity of indigenous longan populations in Western Ghats has never been studied before. In this study, morphological and genetic diversity of longan populations from six different locations in the Western Ghats regions of Kerala were selected. Among these six locations, three were located in the north of Palghat gap and three were in the South ii of Palghat gap. Morphological parameters like crown shape, branching pattern, tree height, tree girth, leaf length and leaf width was considered for studying the morphological diversity. Results from morphological traits revealed that the population from Meppadi region from north of Palghat gap stood different from other longan populations. Cluster analysis conducted using UGPMA method based on the morphological traits showed that population from Mankulam was closely related to the Meppadi population. The populations from six locations were divided into two major clusters. ISSR primers were used to investigate the genetic diversity existing among the six populations. 15 ISSR primers screened from total of 19 primers were used to amplify the DNA sample from different longan populations. Average polymorphism rate of 69.51% was observed. Matrix data was obtained and hierarchical dendrogram was produced using UGPMA method in NTsys pc 2.02 and DARwin software which clusters the populations into two major groups. Jaccard’s dissimilarity index was calculated using R software and the values ranged from 0.00 to 0.51. Genetic relation existing between the natural populations of longan in Kerala, cultivated longan cultivars and litchi were identified. Cluster analysis using UGPMA method pooled different populations into four major clusters and study proved that litchi is genetically more related to the cultivated longan variety rather than the wild populations. This is the first report on the molecular characterization of D. longan from Western Ghats regions in India. The results from this research study can provide valuable information to distinguish, classify and identify the origin of longan populations in India and can be applied for future breeding programs.
