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ThesisItem Open Access Biotic agents for the management of American serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii(Burgess) (Diptera:Agromyzidae)(Department of agricultural entomology, College of horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2014) Jyothi Sara, Jacob; KAU; Maicykutty P, MathewA study on “Biotic agents for the management of American serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)” was carried out at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Horticulture, K.A.U., Vellanikkara during 2011-2013 with the objectives of collection and identification of indigenous natural enemies and to assess the pathogenicity of the entomopathogens to explore the feasibility of utilizing them for its management. Surveys were conducted in the vegetable fields for the collection and identification of natural enemies associated with L. trifolii in three districts, namely, Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam from January to March, 2011. The surveys revealed the occurrence of nine species of hymenopteran parasitoids. The per cent parasitism varied from 10.96 to 58.99 per cent among the crops surveyed. Three species of eulophids, namely, Cirrospilus acadius Narendran, C. brevicorpus Shafee & Rizvi and Aprostocetus sp. as well as the braconid, Toxares sp. are new reports for India. Among the parasitoids, Closterocerus spp. were the dominant group followed by Chrysonotomyia sp. All parasitoids were solitary, larval endoparasitoids except Toxares sp. which was larval-pupal in nature. One species each of small ants (Formicidae) and a dipteran fly (Dolichopodidae) were observed as predators on L. trifolii. In the study, no entomopathogens were observed from L. trifolii. Considering the level of pesticide consumption in vegetable crops that undermine the potential of insect parasitoids and also that no entomopathogens could be observed during the survey, it was decided to evaluate entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as biocontrol agents against L. trifolii. Isolation of EPNs from 72 soil samples from Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts yielded four isolates of Steinernema carpocapsae. Bioefficacy studies carried out on these four isolates along with Steinernema bicornutum and Heterorhabditis indica showed that S. carpocapsae Isolate - 1 had the lowest LC 50 , LC 90 and LT values indicating their higher effectiveness against the maggots of the pest. 50 Pot culture study conducted to compare the potential of S. carpocapsae Isolate - 1 with other treatments showed that azadirachtin 1 EC at 0.005% was the most effective causing 84.51 per cent mortality to the maggots of L. trifolii. This was followed by the foliar application of H. indica at 32 infective juveniles (IJs)/ maggot which caused 18.98 per cent mortality. Application of Beauveria bassiana at 1×10 7 spores/ ml was not effective. In the field evaluation, fipronil 5 SC at 0.002% was found to be the most effective treatment for controlling L. trifolii followed by azadirachtin 1 EC at 0.005%. Compatibility of the IJs of the S. carpocapsae Isolate - 1, S. bicornutum and H. indica was studied with ten commonly used insecticides in the laboratory by direct exposure method. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC at 0.005% was found to be the most compatible insecticide with S. carpocapsae isolate - 1 causing only 0.17 per cent mortality to IJs at 72 hours after treatment (HAT). Quinalphos 25 EC at 0.05% and chlorpyriphos20 EC at 0.05% were highly incompatible, causing 96.17 and 92.87 per cent mortality of the nematodes. Dimethoate 30 EC at 0.04% was the most compatible insecticide with S. bicornutum and caused only 0.60 per cent mortality at 72 HAT and was followed by azadirachtin 1 EC at 0.005% with 0.78 per cent mortality to the IJs. Quinalphos 25 EC at 0.05% caused 99.93 per cent mortality at 72 HAT. Heterorhabditis indica was compatible with all insecticides except quinalphos 25 EC at 0.05% which was moderately toxic resulting in 39.6 per cent mortality. The virulence, pathogenicity and multiplication of the survived IJs were not affected by the insecticide treatments. Parasitoids and EPNs were observed as potential candidates for the management of L. trifolii. Hence future studies on the bio-ecology and mass production of dominant parasitoids and standardization of methods to improve the efficacy of EPNs are suggested for the successful control of L. trifolii in polyhouses as well as in the field.ThesisItem Open Access Bio-ecology and management of papaya mealybug on mulberry(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Rajan, V P; KAU; Krishnakumar, RThe experiment entitled “Bio-ecology and management of papaya mealybug on mulberry” was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Kerala Agricultural University and in farmers’ fields at Agali, Sholayur and Puthur panchayats during October 2009 to July 2012. The main objectives of the study were to identify and assess the extent of infestation of papaya mealybug on mulberry, its role in disease transmission and population dynamics and to evolve an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy to contain the pest. Preliminary survey conducted in sericulture practising districts of Kerala revealed heavy infestation of the pest in three panchayats of Palakkad district in Kerala. The mealybugs identified in the survey were papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) and breadfruit mealybug, Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas). The occurrence of papaya mealybug and its egg masses were found to be high during the period of May to August. The competition between these three mealybugs and also the influence of weather parameters on the population of the papaya mealybug was studied. The mealybug population showed positive correlation with maximum temperature, sunshine and wind speed and negative correlation with minimum temperature, rainfall and humidity. The different plants belonging to families Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae were observed to be the most preferred hosts for papaya mealybug. The highest number of all life stages of papaya mealybug was observed on Parthenium, Parthenium hysterophorus L., which augmented the perpetuation of papaya mealybug in the absence of other crop hosts. Sprouted potatoes were the host material used for studying the biology of the papaya mealybug, pink hibiscus mealybug and breadfruit mealybug. The average number of eggs laid by an adult papaya, pink hibiscus and breadfruit mealybug were 361.50, 281.30 and 141.30 respectively. The mean larval period of papaya, pink hibiscus and bread fruit mealybugs were found to be 16.7, 21.2 and 47.1 days respectively. DAC-ELISA was performed with infected mulberry plants using antibodies of SCBMV and BSV showed the absence of virus in the infected samples collected from the mealybug infested mulberry gardens. The phenol content was also assessed in the infested samples to get an indication of the level of resistance showed by the host plant against mealybug. The level of resistance of the plant found to be increasing with the increase in the per cent damage. The fifth instar larvae of the predator, Spalgis epius was found as the most active feeder with a feeding potential of 21.69, 118.88, 40.88 and 20.49 of ovisacs and first, second and third instars of papaya mealybug respectively. Third instar larvae of green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) and fourth instar grubs of ladybird predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Mulsant) were the most voracious feeders and they consumed significantly higher number of ovisacs, first, second and third instar nymphs of papaya mealybug as compared with first and second instar larvae of the predators. Among the different insecticides evaluated in the laboratory against the first instar and adult papaya mealybugs, dimethoate 0.1% was superior followed by imidacloprid 0.01%. Among the combinations, dimethoate 0.05% + econeem plus 2 ml L-1 was found to be superior with the highest per cent mortality of 93.33% and 96.67% for adult and first instar papaya mealybugs respectively. The silkworm larvae fed with the leaves after 15 days of treatment with the combination of dimethoate 0.05% + econeem plus 2 ml L-1 gave the highest yield of (91 /100 larva reared) cocoons with a total larval duration of 576 hours. Single cocoon weight was found to be high (1.56 g) with the highest shell ratio (22.09). The mean larval weight of different instars were 0.54, 0.87, 1.16, 8.80 and 36.61 gram respectively in first, second, third, fourth and fifth. In the above treatment, effective rearing rate (ERR) by number and weight were 9050.00 and 13744.69 g respectively. Field evaluation with the combination of pruning and weeding along with application of dimethoate (0.05%) 1.7 ml + econeem plus 2 ml L-1 and also providing a second spraying with dichlorvos (0.05%) 2 ml + econeem plus 2 ml L-1 was observed to be superior among all the treatments with minimum leaf damage, shoot damage and highest leaf yield per plant. B: C ratio worked out also confirmed the superiority of this treatment. Hence this treatment can be recommended as an IPM strategy for the management of papaya mealybug on mulberry.ThesisItem Open Access Bird community structure in the sacred groves of northern kerala(Department of Wildlife Sciences, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2014) Mandan Jyothi, Krishnan; KAU; Nameer, P OA study on the ‘Bird community structure in the sacred groves of northern Kerala’ was carried out during 2011-2014. Fifteen sacred groves, eight from Kannur and seven from Kasargod districts were selected for the study. The bird community was studied at each of these sacred groves. The bird study was done for three hours from 7h to 11h and 15h to 18h in each of the fifteen sacred groves. The study was repeated once in every two months in each of the sacred groves between March 2012 to December 2013. Thus a total of 168 visits and 1008 h of field work is done during the study period. The bird diversity was then correlated with various variables such as the size of the sacred grove, distance of the sacred grove to the nearest forest, altitude of the area and tree density. Tree diversity in the sacred groves was also studied and was correlated to bird diversity. Ten quadrats of 10x10m were taken in each of the sacred groves and trees having more than 10 cm girth was selected and GBH and height was measured. Socio-economic study was undertaken to know the awareness about the birds of the sacred grove and the perception about the significance of sacred grove among villagers. Ten respondents from each of the sacred groves were interviewed. A total of 111 bird species, belonging to 15 orders, 47 families and 90 genera were recorded from the sacred groves of northern Kerala. The species richness per sacred grove ranged from maximum of 55 to minimum 23. And the number of individuals of birds per sacred grove ranged from 576 to 203 birds. The bird diversity was highest in the Cheemeni Kavu, while the bird species richness was highest in the Verikkara Kavu. Sacred groves of northern Kerala supported 86.48 per cent of resident birds and 14.52 per cent of migratory birds. Twenty five percent of the birds found in the sacred groves were found to be forest-dependent birds. Two species of birds that are endemic to Western Ghats viz., Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocyceros griseus) and Rufous Babbler (Turdoides subrufa) were recorded from sacred groves of northern Kerala. The bird community of the Kammadam Kavu and Thazhe Kavu was found to be distinct among the 15 sacred groves studied using the Correspondence analysis. Dendrogram based on Bray-Curtis similarity matrix identified broadly three clusters viz. Karaka Kavu to Cheemeni Kavu, Edapara Kavu to Kuduvakolangara Kavu and Thazhe Kavu to Kammadam Kavu. The numbers of endemic birds were found to be greatly influenced by the extent of the sacred grove. However number of forest birds was influenced by the altitude and tree density. A total of 130 tree species were reported from the sacred groves of northern Kerala. 14 species of trees were endemic to Western Ghats and seven were threatened, this includes one Critically Endangered (Vateria indica) and four Endangered (Hopea ponga, Hopea parviflora and Chionanthus mala-elengi, Evodia lunu-anekanda) and two Vulnerable tree (Cinnamomum perrottetii, Santalum album) species. Respondents in the sacred groves of northern Kerala had medium awareness about the birds and perception about the significance of the sacred groves of northern Kerala. Awareness was found to be influenced by caste, gender, education, knowledge about bird diversity in sacred grove and understanding the beneficial effect by birds among the respondents. The perception was influenced by occupation of the respondent, knowledge about bird diversity in sacred grove and understanding of beneficial effect by birds among the respondents. Important threats faced by sacred groves in northern Kerala were encroachment, degradation of vegetation in the sacred grove, dumping of waste into the sacred groves, deposition of solid waste through contaminated water, passages within the sacred grove, use of sacred grove for anti-social activities like for consumption of liquor, playing cards etc, and various construction activities taking places in some of the sacred groves. The Government should step in and take some bold initiatives for the conservation of the sacred groves. Incentives should be provided for the owners of the sacred groves for preserving these important biodiversity repositories outside the reserved forests and protected areas. Restoration planting should be taken up in the degraded sacred groves with community participation.ThesisItem Open Access Market access for smallholder tomato farmers in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe: an economic analysis(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2014) Emmanuel Zivenge; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KLinking small primary producers with markets has been identified as one of the major issues in policy and practice in improving livelihoods for millions of poor in Zimbabwe. Hence this study assessed the current market situation as a way of tracking and tracing efficacy and efficiency failures leading to more informed decision making with regard to redesigning of the matching market for smallholder farmers. The objectives of the study were to identify the tomato supply chains, analyse the price behaviour of tomato, assess the economic performance of the major supply chains, evaluate the institutional innovations in the supply chains and suggest viable supply chain options for smallholder tomato farmers in Zimbabwe. Tomato crop was chosen for the study as it is among the most important vegetables grown by smallholder. The study was based on both primary and secondary data. The study was conducted in Mashonaland East Province. Primary data were collected by means of formal interviews and structured questionnaire from farmers, market-intermediaries and government officials. Multi-stage random sampling technique was used for sample selection. Descriptive analysis was employed to provide a snap shot of the situation under study, which consisted of household level information. The Random Utility Model was employed to determine the factors which significantly influence the market accessibility. The price behaviour was studied using the techniques of classical time series. The Supply chain mapping was done to identify the actors. The study employed Data envelopment analysis to assess economic performance of supply chains and allocation of resources. Volume mapping results indicated that the supply chain, which involved hawkers, was handling the largest volume of tomatoes approximately 409.4 tonnes in one production cycle in 2013 season. The chain that included wholesalers/processors was the least in terms of quantity handled (39.4 tons) showing that it was not accessible. Data envelopment analysis results indicated that the chain that included wholesalers and processors was the only efficient chain when constant return to scale was assumed. Supermarket chain was efficient when variable returns to scale was assumed. The chains that included passers-by and hawkers were inefficient under both constant returns to scale and variable returns to scale technologies. The seasonal index results showed that the tomato prices were highest and lowest in July and November respectively when prices were 31 percent higher than the annual average price and 43 percent below the annual average' price. Spatial markets were not efficient in the short run although showing stable equilibrium in the long run. The price changes were transmitted from one market to another at a rate between 22 percent and 24 percent in the short run which proved to be low. There was no centre market among six municipal markets since price changes were to be set around more than one market. Random Utility model results showed that credit, greenhouse and cooperative membership were significantly influencing participation of smallholder farmers in formal markets. Data envelopment analysis results showed that farmer, on average could reduce input consumption by 12 percent and 27 percent at production and marketing stages respectively. The study concluded that the opportunities to improve profits lie in the marketing perspectives rather than production for tomato producers under study. Farmers can gain better income by reducing consumption of inputs without necessarily asking for high prices. The higher market price cannot compensate the value loss incurred by the high level of transaction costs. Tomato producers should pursue the low transaction costs marketing chains rather than ask for a higher market price. The chain that included hawkers should be given due attention and modem matket infrastructures should be established in rural areas in order to relay reliable, relevant and correct information to the farmers.ThesisItem Open Access Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees) based agroforestry system: planting density effects on biomass accumulation, carbon sequestration, root distribution pattern and understorey crop productivity(Department of silviculture and agroforestry, College of forestry, Vellanikkara, 2014) Bhimappa Kittur; KAU; Sudhakara, KA field experiment was undertaken at Vellanikkara, Thrissur in a seven year old bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees) stand planted at 4x4, 6x6, 8x8, 10x10, and 12x12 m spacings to assess rhizosphere competition and understorey (turmeric, ginger and chittaratha) productivity, to explore the root activity and distribution pattern in bamboo, to determine the understorey photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), leaf area index of bamboo (LAI) and aboveground biomass production, nutrient uptake and carbon sequestration as a function of planting density. Detailed investigation on the physico-chemical attributes of the soil was also done. Results reveal that understorey turmeric and ginger height, shoot length, number of tiller and leaves were significantly lesser due to close spacings (4x4 and 6x6 m) of bamboo, but NPK uptake, dry matter production, rhizome yield and oleoresin content were significantly higher in wider spacings (10x10 and 12x12 m) of bamboo. The chittaratha responded better in control plot followed by widest spacing (12x12 m) of bamboo. Due to competition of bamboo about 89% decline in 32P absorption by turmeric at closest spacing (4x4 m) of bamboo as compared to sole turmeric plot. The recovery of 32P by bamboo from the treated turmeric was significantly decreased with increasing distance from the turmeric beds. The recovery of 32P by bamboo in > 8x8 m spacings was nil. The other factors attributed to reduction in growth and yield of understorey crops may be high LAI of bamboo and low understorey PAR. The LAI of bamboo in 4x4 m spacing was 678 % higher compared to 12x12 m spacing. At 12 noon the understorey PAR increased from 107 µmol/sec per m2 in 4x4 m to 1019 µmol/sec per m2 in 12x12 m spacings of bamboo against the overstorey PAR (1033 µmol/sec per m2). The maximum rooting intensity of bamboo was within 0-30 cm soil depth and up to 4.45 m lateral distance under all the spacings. However, in wider spacings (10x10 and 12x12 m) the roots were distributed beyond 30 cm depth and spread laterally up to 8.75 m. The deeper spread of roots in wider spacings may enable clumps to capture nutrients that would otherwise be leached from the upper horizons of the soil profile. The root activity of bamboo was studied by 32P at varying depths (50 cm and 1 m) and lateral distances (50 cm, 1 m and 2 m). At closest spacing (4x4 m), the 32P absorption by bamboo (15th DAA) at 50x50 cm depth and lateral distance was significantly higher (809 cpm) which gradually decreased by placing 32P beyond 1 m (448 cpm) and 2 m lateral distances (196 cpm). However, in wide spacings (12x12 m) the lateral spread of active roots were more at greater depth (1 m); this helps pumping of soil nutrients from the deeper layers. The bulk density of soil increased with increasing depth of soil and spacings of bamboo. The N, P and K content of soil significantly decreased with increasing spacing of bamboo. Closest spacing (4x4 m) of bamboo recorded maximum amount (2109 kg/ha) of total N and 10x10 m spacing had lowest (1430 kg/ha). The available P at surface soil (0-20 cm) ranged from 12.86 kg/ha under bambooless control plot to 21 kg/ha at closest spacing. The available P up to 1 m soil depth was highest (42 kg/ha) in closest spacing and decreased with increasing spacing of bamboo. The total available K up to 1 m depth of soil in closest spacing was 35% higher compared to widest spacing. The amount of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the whole soil at 0-20 cm was highest (11.50 Mg/ha) due to 4x4 m spacing and lowest (6.61 Mg/ha) due to widest spacing (12x12 m). The total SOC up to 1 m depth in closest spacing declined by 143% compared to widest spacing. The SOC in silt and clay fraction (<53 µm) was highest (16 Mg/ha) in closest spacing (4x4 m) and lowest (5.20 Mg/ha) in bambooless control plot at 20-50 cm soil depth. The SOC in macro sized fraction (>250-2000 µm) in closest spacing was 9 Mg/ha at 0-20 cm depth; this decreased to 2.27 Mg/ha at 80-100 cm depth. Due to decrease of bamboo spacing from 12x12 to 4x4 m, the clump DBH decreased from 1.61 to 1.06 m. The crown spread, number of live culms and MAI of bamboo also increased due to increasing spacing. Due to closest spacing (4x4 m), culm wood biomass decreased by 54% compared to widest spacing (12x12 m) of bamboo. The twig biomass recorded maximum (28%) at 6x6 m and 8x8 m spacing of bamboo and minimum (19%) in closest spacing. The total aboveground biomass in closest spacing was 112 kg/clump which increased to 271 kg/clump due to 12x12 m spacing. At stand level, the culm wood biomass was maximum (49 Mg/ha) in densest stand (625 clumps/ha); this decreased to 11.49 Mg/ha due to least dense stand (69 clumps/ha). The twig and leaf biomass reduction in least dense stand was 206% and 114% compared to densest stand. The total aboveground biomass at densest stand was 274% more compared to least dense stand. Nutrient removal at harvest from the site depends on both nutrient concentration of different plant parts and biomass yield. Nutrient concentration (NPK) in aboveground biomass under all the spacings of bamboo decreased in the order of: leaf>twig>culm wood>dried wood. The total N accumulation in the aboveground biomass was highest (323 kg/ha) in densest stand and lowest (108 kg/ha) in least dense stand. Aboveground biomass P accumulation in densest stand increased by 161% than the least dense stand. The total amount of K accumulated in aboveground biomass ranged from 354 kg/ha in densest stand to 157 kg/ha in the least density of 69 clumps/ha. Higher amount of NPK was retained mainly in the culm wood followed by twig, leaf and dried wood mass. However, dense stands can store significantly higher amount of nutrients in its biomass. The carbon partitioning among the aboveground parts in bamboo show that almost 57-68% was in stem, whereas twigs, leaf and dried wood stored 20-30%, 4-8% and 3-6% in all the spacings of bamboo. The C storage in culm wood varied from 35 kg/clump at closest spacing to 79.12 kg/clump in widest spacing of bamboo. The consistent increase in aboveground C stock with increasing spacings of bamboo might be due to more number of culms per clump and in turn higher dry matter production. At stand level, the total C accumulation in the aboveground biomass was highest (32 Mg/ha) in densest bamboo stand compared to 8.85 Mg/ha in the least dense stand. The study clearly revealed that wider spacings (10x10 and 12x12 m) of bamboo are ideal for better growth and productivity of understorey crops. Even though chittaratha perform best in open condition, among the varying spacings of bamboo, the widest spacing (12x12 m) of bamboo is best. The dense stands of bamboo had the potential of higher aboveground biomass production, nutrient storage and carbon accumulation. However, the study recommends wider spacings (12x12 m) for clump-wise biomass production/C storage and nutrient uptake.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of entomopathogenic fungi for the management of coleopteran pests and characterisation of pesticide tolerant strains(Department of agricultural entomology, College of agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Anis Joseph, R; KAU; Sudharma, KDevelopment of safe and sustainable technologies for pest management is the need of the hour to counter the adversities created by the synthetic pesticides. Considering this, the research on “Evaluation of entomopathogenic fungi for the management of major coleopteran pests and characterisation of pesticide tolerant strains” was carried out in the Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture during 2007-2014. The main objectives of the study were to assess the pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillimen and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin against coleopteran pests, determination of LC 50 , LC 90 and LT 50, development of formulations, of field efficacy, compatibility with pesticides and development of pesticide tolerant strains and molecular characterization of the fungi. assessment The isolates PDBC Bb 5 and PDBC Ma 4 were evaluated against nine coleopteran pests viz. Aulacophora foveicollis Lucas, Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby, Cylas formicarius F., Cosmopolites sordidus Germ., Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata F., Lanka ramakrishnai Prathapan & Viraktamath, Metriona circumdata H., Oryctes rhinoceros Linn. and Rhynchophorus ferrugineus F. Both the fungi were pathogenic to the grubs as well as adults of all the nine insects tested. Though the symptoms produced in the test insects by both the fungi were more or less the same, differences in the behavior of the infected insects were seen. The period taken for the expression of symptoms also varied. The virulence of these two fungi was determined against these nine coleopterans. Ma 4 was found inferior to Bb 5 in its ability to infect the adults of all the test insects except to that of O. rhinoceros at the comparable dose of 10 8 spores ml -1 . Further, bioassay was conducted against the adults and grubs of all the nine test insects and the LC 50 , LC 90 and LT were worked out. From the probit analysis, it was seen that to achieve fifty per cent mortality of the adult coleopterans 50 with B. bassiana within the shortest periods, spore concentrations of 5. 27 × 10 , 6.53 × 10 8 , 4.24 ×10 9 , 5.62 × 10 7 , 3.99 × 10 8 , 6.76 × 10 8 , 7.26 × 10 9 , 1.56 × 10 and 3.76 × 10 13 spores ml -1 was essential for A. foveicollis, B. fulvicorne, C. sordidus, C. formicarius, H. vigintioctopunctata, L. ramakrishnai, M. circumdata, O. rhinoceros and R. ferrugineus respectively. The LC values were much less for the grubs when compared to the adult coleopterans and the values were 2. 15 × 10 50 , 1.87 × 10 6 , 3.83 × 10 8 , 2.94 × 10 7 , 2.79 × 10 7 , 5.72 × 10 6 , 4.96 × 10 and 4.64 × 10 11 spores ml -1 respectively for the grubs of the above mentioned insects. Corresponding LC values were also worked out. The lethal time to obtain fifty percent mortality also varied with insects. With respect to M. anisopliae 11.42 × 10 10 , 3.99 × 10 8 90 , 8.86 × 10 10 , 6.27 × 10 9 , 6.96 × 10 8 , 3.66 × 10 11 8 8 15 , 6.22 × 10 , 6.13 × 10 , 2.58 × 10 13 and 2.73 × 10 15 spores ml -1 respectively was required for the adult coleopterans and 4.91 × 10 7 , 6.09 × 10 8 , 4.81 × 10 8 , 5.83 × 10 8 , 4.95 × 10 7 , 2.42 × 10 , 4.64 × 10 9 , 3.79 × 10 8 and 10.29 ×10 13 spores ml -1 respectively for the grubs. From the LC 50 and LC values, information on the effective field doses of these two fungi against the nine coleopterans could be garnered. 90 Inorder to identify cost effective materials for the multiplication of the fungus, nine substrates were evaluated. The ideal substrates that maintained the viability of B. bassiana were cow dung, wheat bran, rice bran and neem cake. Cow dung and wheat bran supported maximum cfu of M. anisopliae. The peak sporulation of the fungi was observed in the samples drawn two months after storage. Talc based formulations of both fungi maintained the required standards of colony forming units in the formulation upto three months after storage. The cfu at third month after storage for B. bassiana and M. anisopliae were 0.2 × 10 9 cfu g -1 10 8 and 0. 24 × 10 respectively. The bioefficacy of fungi cultured in different substrates and stored for different months was also evaluated against the grubs and adults of C. formicarius. With respect to bioefficacy also, the fungi cultured in cow dung, wheat bran and neem cake proved better. 7 11 9 The results of the field experiment in banana, variety Nendran to assess the effect of spore suspensions of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae, fungi in cow dung and neem cake substrates and talc based formulations of the fungi in comparison with insecticide revealed that the best treatment was talc based B. bassiana @ 30 g l excepting the insecticide check, chlorpyrifos 0.03 per cent for the management of C. sordidus. In the succeeding crop of banana talc based B. bassiana @ 30 g l was even superior to the insecticide check, chlorpyriphos 0.03 per cent. The least number of galleries (0.63) and the least number of grubs in the rhizomes (0.29) besides the lowest number of adult C. sordidus in soil samples were seen in talc based B. bassiana @ 30 g l -1 . The B : C ratios calculated for the treatments with talc based B. bassiana @ 30 g l -1 in the main crop was 1.57 compared to 1.24 for chlorpyriphos 0.03 per cent. The B : C ratios for the treatments with talc based B. bassiana @ 30 g l -1 and spore suspension of B. bassiana 5 × 10 11 spores ml -1 in the succeeding crop of banana were 1.78 and 1.49 which were higher than that for chlorpyriphos 0.03 per cent. The results from the succeeding crop indicate the ability of these fungi to self perpetuate and bring about long lasting effect in the treated area. Field experiments were also conducted in sweet potato, variety Sree Bhadra to assess the effect of two fungi. Talc based B. bassiana @ 30 g1 was superior treatment excepting imidacloprid 0.006 per cent in reducing the galleries produced by the weevils. A similar trend was evident in the second trial also. The effect of application of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae in cow dung and neem based substrates showed moderate effect with respect to the number of galleries and number of grubs. Drenching of talc based formulation of B. bassiana @ 30 g l -1 was better than its foliar treatment. The compatibility of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae with two fungicides and six insecticides was also evaluated inorder to evaluate the suitability of integrating the fungi with pesticides in pest management programmes. Good compatibility of the insecticide, imidacloprid 0.006 per cent with B. bassiana and M. anisopliae was seen. Bioefficacy of the fungi cultured in this insecticide was also higher. Attempts were -1 -1 -1 also made to develop pesticide tolerant strains of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae. For this they were grown continuously in media with varying doses of pesticides. A total of ten passages through poison food media was made. It was seen that both the fungi tolerated high doses of pesticides though there was inhibition in growth, sporulation and bioefficacy. B. bassiana and M. anisopliae tolerated even 32 times higher the recommended field dose of imidacloprid. Subculturing reduced the spore production of both the fungi and the rate of reduction was higher for B. bassiana. Variations induced in B. bassiana and M. anisopliae after ten passages through poisoned media were analysed. Pesticides varied in their ability to induce such changes in the fungi. Polymorphism was higher for B. bassiana cultured in carbendazim. The polymorphism exhibited in B. bassiana was higher (83.19 per cent) compared to M. anisopliae (38.46 per cent). Among the ten universal fungal primers evaluated, RFu – 10 was found to give maximum polymorphism. To conclude, B.bassiana and M.anisopliae are pathogenic to the grubs and adults of all the nine test insects. Of the two fungi tested Bb 5 was more virulent than Ma 4 except to O. rhinoceros. Talc based formulation of both the fungi maintained the required standards of cfu in the formulations upto three months after storage. Cow dung, wheat bran and neem cake are ideal substrates for the multiplication of the fungi. Soil drenching of talc based formulation of B. bassiana @ 30 g l three months after planting was the best treatment for the management of C. sordidus. For the management of C. formicarius in sweet potato also soil drenching of talc based formulation of B. bassiana @ 30 g l -1 was superior. Compatibility of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae with insecticides and fungicides varied, the most compatible one was imidacloprid. Maximum tolerance to this insecticide, upto 32 times higher than the field dose was shown by B. bassiana and M. anisopliae. Pesticides induced changes in DNA, the polymorphism exhibited was higher for B. bassiana compared to M. anisopliae. Nine isolates of the fungi were also identified through ITS sequencing. The new isolates were Beauveria sp. from C. formicarius, B. bassiana -1 from B. fulvicorne, B. brongniartii from M. circumdata, Metarhizium sp. from B. fulvicorne; Metarhizium sp., Metarhizium album and Metarhizium anisopliae var majus from O. rhinoceros, Fusarium moniliformae from H. vigintioctopunctata and Paecilomyces sp. from C. sordidus and these isolates can be exploited in insect specific biocontrol programmes.ThesisItem Open Access Fodder production technology under light and moisture stress situations(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Anita, M R; KAU; Lakshmi, SThe field experiment of the project entitled “Fodder production technology under light and moisture stress situations” was undertaken at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, during January 2012 to March 2014. The main objectives of the project were to identify drought tolerant varieties of fodder cowpea and their performance evaluation in varying proportions of grass legume mixtures under open and shaded conditions. The project comprised of two investigations. The Investigation-I entitled “Drought tolerance studies in fodder cowpea under open and shaded situations” was conducted during the summer season (January to March) of 2012. The Investigation-II on “Evaluation of grass-fodder cowpea mixtures under open and shaded situations” was conducted for two years from March 2012 to 2013 and from March 2013 to March 2014. In Investigation-I, five fodder cowpea varieties (V1-UPC-618, V2-UPC-622, V3-Bundel Lobia-1, V4-COFC-8 and V5-CO-5) were evaluated for their drought tolerance under four soil moisture stress levels (M1 - pre sowing irrigation + life saving irrigation; M2 - pre sowing irrigation + irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.4; M3 - pre sowing irrigation + irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 and M4 - pre sowing irrigation + irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.8). The investigation was conducted as two separate experiments one in open and other in shade. Both the experiments were laid out in split plot design with four replication. Based on the results of this investigation, two drought tolerant fodder cowpea varieties were selected each under open and shaded situation, for conducting Investigation-II. The fodder cowpea varieties COFC-8 (V4) and UPC-622 (V2) which recorded significantly higher green fodder yield (24.21 t ha-1 & 21.36 t ha-1, respectively), crude protein yield (0.79 t ha-1 & 0.66 t ha-1, respectively) and net returns of Rs 44880 ha-1 and Rs 36011 ha-1, respectively were selected for open condition. The fodder cowpea varieties COFC-8 (V4) and UPC-618 (V1) which recorded significantly higher green fodder yield (11.50 t ha-1 and 11.00 t ha-1 respectively), crude protein yield of 0.41 t ha-1 & 0.34 t ha-1 respectively and net returns of Rs 13498 ha-1 and Rs 11873 ha-1 respectively were selected for shaded situation. Investigation-II on the evaluation of grass-fodder cowpea mixtures were also conducted as two separate experiments, one in open and the other in shade. The experiments were laid out in RBD with three replications, comprising of two grasses [G1-Hybrid napier (Suguna), G2-Guinea grass (Harithasree), two best fodder cowpea varieties from the first investigation (V1-COFC-8(open and shade), V2-UPC-622 (open), UPC-618 (shade) and three grass legume row ratios (R1-1:1, R2 -1:2, R3 -1:3). The results indicated the superiority of the grass legume mixture of hybrid napier cv. Suguna and with both the fodder cowpea varieties in the grass legume row ratio of 1:2 with respect to green fodder yield, crude protein yield and net returns. Based on the results, it can be concluded that hybrid napier cv. Suguna intercropped with fodder cowpea varieties COFC-8 and UPC-622 in open condition and with COFC-8 and UPC-618 in partial shade (30 per cent) in the row ratio of 1:2 is the best for obtaining maximum yield, quality and net returns.ThesisItem Open Access Development, quality assessment and clinical efficacy of functional food supplement (FFS) for life style disease management(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Krishnaja, U; KAU; Mary Ukkuru, PWith a global increase in the prevalence of lifestyle diseases, both nutrition and functional foods play key roles in its prevention and management. Functional foods from natural sources are cost effective, sustainable and reduce the risk factors. In this context, the present investigation entitled “Development, quality assessment and clinical efficacy of ‘Functional Food Supplement’ (FFS) for life style disease management” was conducted to develop a Functional Food Supplement (FFS) using locally available food ingredients that are not included in our daily diet due to ignorance or over sight but are rich in bioactive compounds with the twin ability of nourishment and therapeutic action. The constituents selected for the FFS contain barley, ragi, banana, defatted soy flour, drumstick leaves and mushroom. Different proportions of the ingredients were worked out based on their nutritional qualities, amino acid scores, fibre content and other health promoting properties and sensory qualities. Dehydration and fermentation were the two processing techniques applied to standardize the FFSs. From the twenty combinations worked out, after different levels of screening, four combinations were selected under the dehydration technique. In the fermentation technique, one combination (combination XIV) selected from the dehydration techniques subjected to four different treatments was identified for further investigation. Best suitable combination from each processing technique was identified based on functional properties and sensory qualities. Thus DT4 (B: R: Bp: DSF: DLp: Mp = 3.5:2.0:1.5:2.5:0.25:0.25) from FFS I was selected for in-depth investigation. While in the case of FFS II yeast fermented batter (FT4) was identified as the best combination. The identified FFS I & II were subjected to indepth investigations such as quality analysis based on nutrient content, functional properties, phytochemical content, storage stability and clinical efficacy on the lifestyle diseases. Significant differences were found in the nutrient contents of FFS I & II. FFS I had higher energy content of 384 kcal, protein 21.4 g and fat 1.88g. Nutrient status of FFS II showed (378 kcal) of energy, 16.5 g of protein and 1.56 g of fat which were considerably lower than that of FFS I. Fibre and β – glucan content of FFS I were (4.0 g) and (1.60 g) respectively. Though FFS II is found to contain higher amounts of β–glucans (1.68 g) compared to FFS I, it had significantly lower fibre content of 3.33 g. The variation noted in the carbohydrate content of FFS I was 60.5 g against 58 g of FFS II which were statistically insignificant. FFS II on fermentation had produced a remarkable increase in the β-carotene (2910 µg), thiamine (1.63 mg), riboflavin (1.3 mg), niacin (2.68 mg) and folic acid (40.0 mg) levels. However, vitamin E (3.35 µg) and Vitamin C (8.73 mg) content of FFS I was significantly higher than FFS II. FFS I had a significantly higher composition of all the macro (potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus), micro (iron, copper, zinc, manganese) and trace elements (selenium) compared to FFS II. The total antioxidant activity and DPPH free radical scavenging activity of both FFS I & II developed proved to be in favour of the disease management. Phytochemical contents of FFS I was significantly higher than FFS II. Amino acid profile depicted that, Glutamic acid (132.9 nmoles/ml) is the highest amino acid in FFS I while FFS II elicited high amounts of Glycine (107.6 nmoles/ml). The Total Essential Amino acid (TEAA) content, Essential Amino Acid index and Nutritional index per cent were higher in FFS I when compared to FFS II. Assessment of functional qualities of the developed functional food supplements based on the parameters viz. pasting properties, textural properties, colour attributes and particle size showed that, both FFS I & II were equally acceptable and had higher market potentials. Moisture, peroxides and microbial contents were bare minimum during storage, promoting them for better marketability. The cost of one Kg of both FFS I & II was Rs. 200/- and the cost of one portion size of the products was only Rs. 4.0/- indicating better economic viability when scaled up against health. Efficacy of the developed FFS was tested in the selected subjects from Elamkulam panchayat of Malappuram district, with lifestyle diseases viz. hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia and hypertension. Impact of the supplementation (20 gm per day) of FFS (I & II) on selected subjects was closely monitored through clinical parameters like fasting and post prandial blood sugar, Glycemic Index, blood pressure and lipid profile and general health and morbidity. The findings proved that both FFS I & II were equally good in lowering the FBS, PPBS, Total Cholesterol, LDL, VLDL, Triglycerides and blood pressure levels of the subjects. Both FFS I & II also had a favourable role in enhancing HDL levels. Except, blood pressure all the other parameters of the subjects had come to normal values at the end of supplementation period. Glycemic Index values of FFS I & II and Glycemic load were low which further supports the therapeutic function of the products. Findings of the present investigation strongly recommend that both FFS I & II developed proved to be efficient in the dietary management of the subjects with lifestyle diseases as the developed FFSs are proved to contain therapeutic and health promoting properties. The study recommends that natural food ingredients can be effectively utilized for the development of functional food supplements for the management of lifestyle diseases. With the virtue of the studied parameters, the FFSs could be promoted for commercialization. In vivo studies to prove the therapeutic role of the developed functional food supplements in managing the lifestyle diseases can be taken as a future prospective. Large scale studies to strengthen and validate the clinical role FFS has to be undertaken. Commercialization and market acceptability of the developed FFS has to be promoted for the benefit of subjects who are obsessed with food but are instead stuck to medicines for treatment and management of diseases.ThesisItem Open Access Optimisation and utilisation of resistant starch for value addition in rice products(Department of Home Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2014) Lilia Baby; KAU; Indira, VThe present study was undertaken to standardise processing treatments for optimising resistant starch (RS) formation in rice starch and to evaluate the changes in rice starch properties. The study also aimed to standardise rice flour supplemented with RS, to evaluate its quality attributes during storage and the effect of RS supplemented food products on postprandial glycaemic response. Starch was isolated from the raw and parboiled rice of variety Uma. Raw rice had lower starch content and higher RS, compared to parboiled rice. The effect of processing conditions on the RS content of rice starch was studied in 48 treatments by autoclaving at 121°C and 141°C for 20, 40 and 60 minutes without moisture and with 10, 20 and 40 percentage moisture levels. After autoclaving, the samples were cooled at room temperature and at -20°C. The yield of RS was found to be maximum in samples autoclaved at 141°C for 40 minutes with 10 per cent moisture and cooled at -20°C. Increasing the duration of autoclaving up to 60 minutes at a lower temperature of 121°C was also found to be effective in improving the RS content of rice starch. RS formation not only depends on a single factor but also on multiple factors like time and temperature of autoclaving, moisture as well as cooling conditions. To study the effect of repeated autoclaving and cooling, five treatments yielding maximum RS content were selected. The RS content increased with increase in the number of autoclaving and cooling cycles irrespective of the temperature and time of autoclaving, moisture content and cooling conditions. Repeated autoclaving and cooling lowered the content of rapidly and slowly digestible starch. The moisture and protein content of repeatedly autoclaved and cooled samples were significantly lower than the native starch. The total carbohydrate and amylose content increased during processing and found to be maximum in samples autoclaved at 141°C for 40 minutes and cooled at -20°C. The standardisation of resistant starch supplemented rice flour (RSRF) was carried out by incorporating 10, 15 and 20g of RS to 100g of puttu and idiappam flour. For this, two treatments with maximum RS content were selected. Physical qualities of the flour, in vitro starch digestibility and organoleptic qualities of the products were evaluated. Incorporation of RS decreased the bulk density (BD) and water absorption index (WAI) of flour whereas water solubility index (WSI) increased. In vitro starch digestibility was found to be inversely proportional to the RS content of rice flour. The puttu and idiappam prepared with RS supplemented rice flour were found to be organoleptically acceptable. The storage studies of RSRF were carried out by selecting RS incorporated puttu and idiappam flour having better organoleptic acceptance of their products. The flour was stored for six months under ambient condition after packing in polythene bags. The physical qualities like BD, WAI and WSI of puttu and idiappam flour decreased during six months of storage. A decrease in protein and total carbohydrate content was noticed with an increase in the moisture level. The RS content of flour improved during storage. The count of bacteria, yeast and fungi increased towards the end of storage in both the flour. Insect infestation was not observed throughout the storage period. The organoleptic qualities of the puttu and idiappam decreased slightly, when they were prepared from stored flour. Postprandial glycaemic responses of puttu and idiappam supplemented with RS was assessed among diabetic and non-diabetic individuals in comparison with non-supplemented products. The increase in blood glucose level was relatively at a lower rate when RS supplemented puttu and idiappam were given to diabetic as well as non diabetic subjects. Better response was observed among diabetic subjects.
