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Open Access
Studies on the postnatal development of the epididymis in the Malabari goat (capra hircus)
(Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1975) Harshan, K R; KAU; Radhakrishnan, K
The postnatal development of epididymis was described and illustrated from studies in 39 Malabari goats, divided into 13 groups, ranging from day old to 180 days of age. The weight of epididymis was positively correlated to age and body weight. The epididymal weight was more significantly correlated to body weight than to age. The left epididymis was found to be significantly heavier than the right. The length and thickness of the head, the body and the tail of the epididymis increased with increase in the weight of the organ. The tunica albuginea was found to be fibro- muscular in structure. The interstitial tissue was fibrous. The diameter of the epididymal duct and its lumen increased with increase in age. Both these measurements were highest in the cauda, less in the corpus and least in the caput. The process of pseudostratification of the epithelial lining of lumen of the duct was completed at first in the cauda, secondly in the corpus and finally in the caput. Regional differences in the height of epithelium was noticed, the highest being in the caput, lower in the corpus and lowest in the cauda. The epithelial height increased with advance in age. Sperms were observed at 165 days of age in the lumen of the epididymal duct. The concentration of sperm was maximum in the cauda, slightly less in the corpus and least in the caput. The lumen of the epididymis of the 150 days and 165 days old goats showed some spherical cells with spherical nuclei. These were considered to be spermatogenic cells coming from the testis.
Open Access
Anatomy and histology of ruminant stomach of goat
(Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1981) Jose John, Chungath; KAU; Radhakrishnan, K
Gross and microscopic anatomy of the stomach of twenty adult goats, including blood supply and nerve supply have been investigated. Linear, weight and capacity measurements were recorded in relation to body length and weight. The disposition of inner mucosa of various stomach compartments was also studied. The caudo-ventral blind sac of rumen of goat, unlike that of other ruminants, extended more caudally than the dorsal one. Dorsal coronary grooves were absent. The right ventral coronary groove was distinct and reached the ventral border of rumen. The omasum was the smallest and oval in shape. The abomasum was comparatively larger in goats. The compound stomach in adult goat weighed 3.45 per cent of intact body weight. The volume of different stomach compartments as percentage of total stomach were 73, 7, 2 and 18 for rumen, reticulxam, omasiim and abomasum respectively. The wet tissue weights of different compartments as percentage of total stomach were about 66, 9, 8 and 17 for rumen, reticuliim, omasum and abomasum respectively. Basically, the mlcroscopic structure of goat stomach resembled closely that of other uruminants. The forestomach had the non-glandular cutaneous mucous membrane, a connective tissue sub mucosa, a two layered muscular tunic and a serosa. The omasum and abomasum presented the muscularis mucosae. The abomasum had glandular epithelium with the cardiac, fundic and pyloric regions. The different compartments of stomach of goats was innervated by the dorsal and ventral branches of the vagus. The arterial supply was by the branches of coelic artery.
Open Access
Postnatal Development of the Oviduct in the Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)
(Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1994) Lucy, K M; KAU; Harshan, K R
The structure and postnatal development of the oviduct in quails were investigated using 72 birds aged from day-old to 60 days. The growth, morphology and histology of the oviduct were studied using six birds at each age group. In the day-old quail chick, the oviduct could seen as a narrow white translucent tube towards the left side of the coelom connected by dorsal and ventral ligaments. The sign of coiling was evident from 25 days of age. In the initial stages, the increase in weight and length of oviduct was in accordance with the growth of the bird. Rapid changes in the development of the organ occurred between 30 and 4 0 days of age and a spurt in growth was noticed from 40-60 days of age. In the day-old chick, the cranial regions of the oviduct corresponding to the infundibulum, magnum and isthmus were undifferentiated. Throughout the length of the oviduct, histological appearance was the same. The mucosa was thrown into low primary folds lined by simple columnar epithelium and there was subepithelial connective tissue containing densely packed cells with fine collagen and reticular fibres. The large number of luminal epithelial cells and the increase in height of the mucosal folds indicated entry into a rapid growth phase which started between 30 and 40 days of age. In the adult bird, the innermost epithelium of the different segments of the oviduct consisted of ciliated columnar cells and secretory goblet cells. Lamina propria was packed with tubular glands except in the funnel of infundibulum, magnum-isthmus junction and vagina. Bundles of collagen and a few elastic and reticular fibres constituted the core of the mucosal folds. Mucosal folds also contained lymphocytes in diffuse form and nodular aggregates. Thickness of the tunica muscularis increased from the anterior to the posterior end of the oviduct. Externally there was a typical serosa
Open Access
Post-hatch development of preen gland in the duck (anas platyrhynchos)
(Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Rajathi, S; KAU; Ashok, N
The study on the post-hatch development of the preen gland in ducks was conducted using 44 ducks from the day of hatch to 150 days of age. The project was taken up to trace the structure and development of the glands and their relationship with the age and body weight. After recording gross relations and measurements, the material was fixed using various fixatives for studying the cellular details, arrangement of cells, connective tissue framework, micrometry and histochemistry. The preen gland was a paired organ with two gland and a common cylindrical papilla together formed a ‘V’ shaped structure. Each gland was pear shaped and pale yellow in colour, in fresh state. They were located on the dorsal surface of the pygostyle. The two glands had separate ducts. The uropygial circlet was seen at the tip of the papilla. The glands were vascularized through a pair of branches from the caudal artery and innnervated through the medial caudal nerve. The weight of the preen glands increased progressively from the day of hatch to 150 days of age. This weight was positively correlated with the age and body weight. The proportion of the gland weight to body weight showed a decreasing trend. The right gland was slightly heavier, longer, wider and thicker than the left. The length, breadth and thickness were positively correlated with age and body weight. Simple, branched, tubular and holocrine type of glands was covered by highly vascular connective tissue capsule composed of collagen and reticular fibres. Elastic and smooth muscle cells were absent. The secretory tubules showed two zones, an outer zone or zone I, near the capsule and an inner zone or zone II, towards the primary cavity. The epithelium of the tubules consisted of basal, intermediate and transitional cell layers. The papilla had two ducts, which were lined by glandular epithelium initially and keratinized type of stratified stratified squamous epithelium at the tip. The glandular epithelium was surrounded by longitudinally arranged smooth muscle fibres and skin. Lamellar corpuscles and circlet feather follicles were noticed in the papilla. Capsule, trabeculae and the parenchyma were PAS positive. Acid mucopolysaccharides and glycogen were not detected in the gland. Lipids were evident uniformly in all the cell layers. The acid phosphatase activity was moderate in the basal and intermediate layers and strong in the transitional layer. The alkaline phosphatase activity was moderate in the basal and intermediate layers and weak in transitional layer of outer zone. It was moderate in the basal and intermediate layers and intense in the transitional layer of inner zone. Micrometrical findings on the capsule thickness, width of outer and inner zones and the primary cavity increased with the advancement of age.
Open Access
Studies on the postnatal development of testis in Malabari goat
(Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1975) Unnikrishnan, M D; KAU; Radhakrishnan, K
A detailed study on the postnatal development of testis is undertaken using 39 pairs of testis of goats belonging to Malabari breed. The animals varied in age from one day to 180 days. The experimental animals were divided into 13 groups having an age difference of 15 days between groups. It was observed that the testicular weight was positively correlated with age and body weight of the animal. The growth of testis could be divided into two phases. A slow gradual increase in weight until about 135 days of age and a sharp rise thereafter till adulthood. The left testis was found to be more heavier than the right testis in the same animal. During growth, the shape of the organ was not altered. The diameter or seminiferous tubule was found to be positively correlated with age, body weight and testicular weight of the animal. Weight of testis was found to be having a greater influence on the diameter of seminiferous tubule than age or body weight. Goat testis follows five phases of postnatal development based on histological changes. It was established that a Malabari buck attains sexual maturity by the age of 180 days.
Open Access
Postnatal development of the bursa of fabricius in duck (Anas platyrhynchos)
(Department of Anatomy, College of veterinary and animal sciences, Mannuthy, 1999) Indu, V Raj; KAU; Jose John Chungath
The structure and post natal development of the bursa of Fabricious in White Pekin ducks were investigated using 51 birds aged from day – old to 155 – days. The growth, morphology and histology of the bursa were studied using three birds of each age group. In the day – old ducklings, the bursa could be seen as a smooth, yellow, elongated blind sac – like structure with a tapering apex. By 155 days it was a cylintrical and much reduced pale structure. In all the birds, the bursa communicated with the proctodeum of cloaca by a short stalk. The inner surface of bursa contained two large well – developed plicae on the ventral aspect and about five to eight smaller folds all round the circumference. The number of plicae increased upto 30 days of post natal life. After 80 days a decreasing trend was recorded in their number. After hatch, the bursal growth rate was not in proportion to that of body. It showed a decreasing trend after attaining peak values at five days of age. Though the bursa weight varied with variation in the age and body weight of the bird, a greater percentage variation in its weight was accounted for by body weight. The weight, length, diameter and plical measurements of bursa attained maximum average values at 58 days of age indicating that the bursa of ducks may be most functional at this age. Histologically, the wall of the bursa was divided into three tunics in birds of all ages. The outermost, tunica serosa enveloped the entire organ and increased in thickness gradually. The middle, tunica muscularis consisted of an outer circular and inner longitudinal layer of smooth muscle fibres with blood vessels in between. The innermost, tunica mucosa consisted of pseudostratified lining epithelium and lamina propria filled with follicles. The epithelium was distinguished into follicle associated epithelium and interfollicular epithelium. Each follicle consisted of a cortex and medulla separated by a layer of epithelial cells with distinct basement membrane in birds of all ages. Lymphoblast, lymphocytes and macrophages formed the cellular component of the follicle. The number, size and cellular details of lymphoid follicles attained their peak – values by about 58 to 65 days of post hatch period. The interfollicular and subepithelial connective tissue was made up of collagen and reticular fibres with a few elastic fibres. The cellular component in it included plasma cells, eosinophils, mast cells, macrophages and fat cells. Involutory changes in the bursa were recorded from 95 – days post hatch characterised by degeneration of plical epithelium and follicular atrophy. Prominent microscopic features of involution were evident from 140 days of age. The bursa showed follicular degeneration, fibrosis of subepithelialstroma, collapse of plicae, depletion of lymphocytes and fatty replacement of the organ. The lining epithelial cells of bursal mucosa revealed positive reaction to Schiff’s reagent and metachromasia in birds of all ages. Intense acid phosphatase and moderate alkaline phosphatase activity was noticed in the epithelial cells of the bursa, in all the birds. The maximum positive immunoperoxidase activity seen by about 35 to 58 days of age suggested that immunologically the bursa was at its peak functional activity at this age.
Open Access
Development of the adrenal gland in the crossbred goat
(Department of Anatomy, College of veterinary and animal sciences, Mannuthy, 1999) Ashok, N; KAU; Harshan, K R
Studies on the prenatal and postnatal development of the adrenal gland in crossbred goats were conducted using 55 embryos/ foetuses of varying gestational ages and 45 goats from day old to 180 days postpartum. The project was taken up to trace the normal growth and developmental pattern of the glands and their relationship with age, body weight and the physiological status. After recording gross relations and measurements, the material was fixed using various fixatives for studying the cellular details, arrangement of cells, connective tissue framework, micrometry and histochemistry. The glands attained their characteristic shapes even during early development and were located cranial to the kidneys in the retroperitoneum. During the prenatal period weight of the adrenals increased steadily upto 141 days followed by a spurt thereafter due to the hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the cortex. After birth also an increasing trend was noticed in adrenal weight from birth to 180 days with a slight decrease at 45 days. The glandular weight was positively correlated with age and body weight. The proportion of the adrenal to body weight percentage showed a decreasing trend in both the groups studied. The left gland was slightly heavier and longer than the right while the right one was broader and thicker. The length, breadth and thickness were positively correlated with the age of foetuses and kids. The cortical primoridum was first detected at 33 days of embryonic development. By 36 days , these cells began to organize into cords and dense aggregations. Though a thin .'. collagenous capsule began to develop by 42 days, it became conspicuous with outer more fibrous and inner more cellular layers by 70 days. Reticular fibres appeared by 58 days and elastic fibres by 74 days of foetal life. By 42 days, histological differentiation started with organization of cells into small groups and clusters separated by irregular spaces. The central vein also started development at this stage. Differentiation of zona glomerulosa was noticed by 58 days and was completed by 95 days. Zona fasciculata and zona reticularis became apparent by 129 days. A distinct corticomedullary junction appeared at 95 days eventhough interdigitations of cortex and medulla were seen at the junction throughout the study period. Towards the centre of the gland intermingling of cortical and medullary cells were seen upto 104 days. Patches of cortical cells were seen in the medullary region and also around the central vein throughout the period of study. Neural crest cells invaded the cortical primordium by 50 days and this process was completed by 70 days. Chromaffin reaction appeared in the medullary cells by 50 days. Even though norepinephrine cells were detected in the gland at this stage, epinephrine cells made their presence only by 98 days. Follicles containing colloid material were encountered in the medulla during both the advanced foetal and the postnatal periods. In goats, the glands were covered by highly vascular' connective tissue capsule composed of collagen, reticular and elastic fibres with a few smooth muscle cells. An outer more fibrous and an inner more cellular layers were recognizable. The capsule contained undifferentiated cells, differentiated cortical type cells, fibroblasts, neurons and melanocytes. The parenchyma was divisible into a cortex and a medulla. Cortex was further subdivided into zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone had distinct pattern of cellular arrangement and cytological characteristics. Mast cells were occasionally detected in all the cortical zones. Mitotic figures were also recorded throughout the cortex. A zona intermedia was observed between the zona glomerulosa and the zona fasciculata. Capsule, trabeculae and the parenchyma were all PAS positive.Acid mucopolysaccharides and glycogen were also detected in the cortex. They were seen at varying intensities in the cortex and medulla of the prenatal and the postnatal subjects. Intensity of phosphatase enzymes was lower in the cortical cells between third and fourth month of gestation after which the same increased till term. After birth a higher activity upto 30 days and a reduced activity at 45 days were recorded especially in the zona fasciculata. Medullary cells revealed moderate alkaline phosphatase and intense acid , phosphatase activities during the study period. Lipid was first detected by 50 days, and upto 74 days a uniform distribution was seen throughout the cortex. Afterwards, it concentrated more in the clusters of cells in the subcapsular region. Between 84 and 122 days, a low lipid content was noticed in the cortical cells, the concentration of which gradually increased towards term. After 141 days a heavy accumulation was observed in the cortex. During the postnatal period, the inner two cortical zones showed heavy lipid accumulation upto 15 days and a slight depletion at 30 days. This was followed by a very heavy accumulation in all the three cortical zones at 45 days. Following this, a gradual depletion was noticed from all the cortical zones. In the prenatal group, capsular thickness, width of the entire cortex as well as the various cortical zones and diameter of the medulla showed positive correlation with foetal age. In the postnatal group, excepting the width of zona reticularis, all other parameters were positively correlated with age. After 135 days of gestation, width of the cortex, especially of the inner two cortical zones increased significantly till term. During postnatal period, a decrease was noticed in the width of outer two cortical zones by 45 days, however the diameter of medulla increased steadily upto 180 days. Growth rate of zona glomerulosa was higher than that of zona fasciculata till 60 days, after which the latter grew faster. The medulla grew faster than the cortex upto 45 days and thereafter no significant difference in growth rates could be detected. Percentage contribution of zona glomerulosa to the entire cortex was more during the foetal period compared to the postnatal animals. On an average, during the postnatal period the zona glomerulosa contributed 16.71 per cent, zona fasciculata 74.16 per cent and zona reticularis 9.13 per cent to the total cortical width. It was concluded that the stress induced on the growing foetus towards the end of gestation due to the insufficiency of placenta resulted in a higher activity of the cortex, particularly of the zona fasciculata under the influence of foetal ACTH. At parturition, exposure of the new born to the external environment induced severe stress which was responsible for the higher activity of the gland during early neonatal period. When the young one got acclimatized to the new surroundings, the stress was relieved which in turn resulted in the reduced activity of the gland by 45 days postpartum.
Open Access
Postnatal development of the upper digestive tract in the Japanese quail
(Department of Anatomy, College of veterinary and animal sciences, Mannuthy, 1995) Maya, S; KAU; Lucy Paily
The structure and postnatal development of the upper digestive tract of Japanese quails were studied using 72 birds aged from day-old to 60 days for proper understanding of their functional peculiarities. The growth, morphology and histology of the tongue, pharynx, cervical and thoracic parts of oesophagus, crop, proventriculus and gizzard were studied using six birds at each age group. The age groups studied were at three days interval upto 15 days and thereafter at five days interval upto 30 days and then at ten days interval upto 60 days of age. Maximum weight of each part was recorded at 60 days of age. But maximum contribution to body weight by each part occurred within the first week of age. The tongue, pharynx and oesophagus were lined by stratified squamous epithelium, which showed keratinization on the anterior two-third of the ventral surface of the tongue and on the papillae of the tongue and pharynx. Filiform, conical and fungiform papillae were present on the base of the tongue. The rostral lingual glands contained both serous and mucous end pieces, but posterior glands showed only mucous cells. The taste buds were associated with the glandular ducts. The skeleton of the tongue showed signs of ossification from 30th day of age, with the tip of the entoglossal bone remaining cartilaginous even upto 60 days of age. In the pharynx, pharyngeal tonsil and palatine, sphenopterygoid and cricoarytenoid salivary glands were noticed. In addition to mucous and pieces the medial palatine glands exhibited serous and pieces also. Within the choanal slit and laryngeal inlet the squamous epithelium changed into respiratory epithelium. Laryngeal cartilages were cricoids, procricoid and paired arytenoids. The oesophagus was represented by a long cervical and short thoracic parts with a diverticulum, the crop. The epithelium on the top of the longitudinal mucosal folds was higher in the cervical oesophagus. Mucous glands were present throughout the oesophagus and crop but much reduced in the greater curvature of the crop and lymphoid tissue was absent at the region. Muscularis mucosa and submucosa entered into the longitudinal folds. Tunica muscularis consisted of iner circular and outer longitudinal layers of smooth muscles. Tunica adventitia was the outermost layer. A well developed oesophageal tonsil was present at the oesophago- proventricular junction. THh spindle-shaped proventriculars had a mucosa studied with minute nodules. Surface epithelium consisted of cuboidal to columnar cells. Lamina propria contained simple tubular glands. Muscularis mucosa consisted of scattered bundles of longitudinagl smooth muscle fibres. The compound tubular glands in the submucosa were lined by oxyntico peptic cells which had a dentate appearance. Tunica muscularis consisted of inner and oter longitudinal and middle circular layers of smooth muscle fibres. Outermost was the serosa. At the isthmus, the glands and outer longitudinal muscle layer of proventriculus disappeared and the lamina propria contained glands similar to those of gizzard. The biconvex dis-shaped gizzard had a greater dorsoventral diameter than cranio – caudal diameter. Internal to the serous lining was the tendon layer which was thickest at the tendinous aponeurosis and absent at the blind sacs. The lateral muscles consisted of a single layer of smooth muscle where as the blind sacs had inner longitudinal and outer circular muscle layers. Submucosa was dense and the muscularis mucosa absent. The tubular gland in the lamina propria were lined mainly by chief cells, and few basal and intermediate cells.Tall columnar cells which showed supranuclear PAS positive reaction, constituted the surface epithelium. The gizzard lining consisted of arrays of vertical columns, secreted by the tubular glands and a matrix produced by surface cells. The junction of gizzard with duodenum was marked by a constriction of muscularis mucosa forming a fold of the muscularis and tunica propria. Posterior to the fold spatula –shaped duodenal villi and coiled tubular glands with goblet cells were observed.
Open Access
Postnatal development of upper digestive tract in the duck
(Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1990) Shyla Paulose; KAU; Ommer, P A
The structure and postnatal development of the upper digestive tract of ducks at different stages of growth was studied using 72 white pekin ducklings aged from day-old to 180 days for the proper understanding of their functional peculiarities. The growth, morphology and histology of the tongue, pharynx, oesophagus and crop, proventriculus and gizzard were studied using six birds at each age group. The oesophagus and the gizzard attained the maximum growth by 75 days whereas the tongue, pharynx, and the proventriculus at 150 days of age. The tongue, pharynx and oesophagus were lined by stratified squamous epithelium. Herbst’s, Grandry’s and Meissaner’s corpuscles, ganglion cells and encapsulated spherical bodies were present in the tongue. Filiform, fungiform and conical papillae, many taste buds, anterior and posterior lingual holocrine mucous glands were observed in the tongue. The tip of the entoglossal bone remained cartilaginous and showed signs of ossification from eighth day of age. Within the choanal slit, cavernous tissue covered by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium was present. In pharynx, pharyngeal tonsils, palatine, sphenopterygoid and laryngeal salivary glands were noticed. At the inlet of the larynx, the epithelium changed to pseudostratified ciliated columnar. The laryngeal cartilages were cricoids, procricoid and paired arytenoids. The oesophagus consisted of longer cervical part, spindle shaped crop and short thoracic part. The longitudinal mucosal folds were more at the crop and the microscopic papillae appeared on the crop and thoracic oesophagus from 15 days of age. The mucous glands were present throughout the esophagus and crop. The muscularis mucosa and submucosa were absent. Tunica muscularis consisted of inner longitudinal and outer circular layer of smooth muscles. The adventitial cost was replaced by a layer of serosa in the thoracic part. A well developed oesophageal tonsil was present at the oesophage –proventricular junction. The elongated proventriculus had narrow cranial and wider caudal ends with numerous small papillae containing the opening of the proventricular gland. The mucosal folds were lined by cuboidal to columnar cells. The superficial proprial glands showed zonation. The unilobular compound tubular glands were lined by oxyntico-peptic cells which had a dentate appearance. In the day –old ducklings, the lobules were elongated in the anterior and middle part and in the posterior portion they were small and polygonal in shape. From 15 days onwards, most of the gland lobules were round or polygonal in cross section. The central cavity of the gland and the duct were lined by tall columnar cells which were PAS positive. The muscularis mucosa as a distinct layer was not seen and the submucosa was absent, Tunica muscularis consisted of inner and outer longitudinal and middle circular layer of smooth muscles and invested by the serous layer. At the isthmus, the proventricular glands and the outer longitudinal muscle layer were absent and the lamina propria contained glands similar to gizzard glands. The gizzard had greater dorso-ventral diameter than cranic –caudal diameter except in day-old ducklings in which the reverse was true. The tendon layer was thickest at the tendinous aponeurosis and absent in the blind sacs. The lateral muscle consisted of single layer of circular smooth muscle whereas the blind sacs had inner longitudinal and outer circular layers of smooth muscle. Submucosa was dense and the muscularis mucosa was absent. The simple tubular gizzard gland was lined mainly by chief cells. The chief cell granules and the luminal contents showed similar reactions in PTAH and trichrome staining. The surface epithelium showed papillary projections and were lined by tall columnar cells which showed supranuclear PAS positive reaction. The thickness of the glandular layer and the gizzard lining consisted of arrays of vertical columns secreted by the tubular glands and the matrix produced by the surface cells. The lining was strongly adherent to the musculature and could not be peeled off. The blood and nerve supplies to these organs were studied using embalmed carcasses and angiograms.

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