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ThesisItem Open Access Economic Feasibilityb of Betelvine as an Intercrops in Rubber Holdings of Mavelikkara Taluk(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 1993) Vijayakumari, P R; KAU; Nazeem, P AA study has been conducted to analyse the economic feasibility of betelvine as an intercrop in the rubber holding of Mavelikkara taluk . Only five units having betelvine as intercrop could be identified in this area. One hundred other holding 20 each of betelvine as pure crop, plantain as intercrop, plantain as pure crop having covercrop and without any intercrop were also selected for the study . The study revealed that only a small portion of the holding was occupied by the betelvine, when it was treated as an intercrop. The cost of cultivation was found to be very high when compared with other cash crops. This might be the reason for limiting the cultivation to a small portion. This was confirmed by the fact that betelvine as pure crop was also limited in extent. The benefit cost analysis of the above crops revealed that betelvine cultivation was highly profitable with a benefit cost ratio of 2.51 in the intercropped area and was significantly higher than that for plantain which is the other common intercrop. The soil analysis data showed that betelvine absorbed lesser nutrients than plantain . The rubber plants of betelvine intercropped area showed vigorous growth than other intercrops which was due to the regular irrigation and fortnightly application of organic manure to the betelvine. Though the cost of cultivation was very high for betelvine , it could be recommended as an intercrop in the rubber holdings where there is availability of water throughout the year since it ensures substantial weekly income for the grower and his family. Though betelvine could be treated as a perennial crop, the farmers choosing it as an intercrop in rubber holdings will have to sacrifice the same by the fourth year when the rubber canopy closes to the full extent. Hence, we can suggest betelvine as an intercrop in rubber holdings only if land is too scare for its monoculture.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative study of fertilizer recommendations based on soil and leaf analysis vis a vis blanket recommendations of rubber board(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1992) Rajendran, P V; KAU; Nazeem, P AA case study was made to assess the comparison of the dosage of fertilizer recommendation based on soil and leaf analysis vis-à-vis blanket recommendation of the rubber Board. Almost all estates in our country are practicing this method of fertilizer application and systematic data is available only from large estates.. Hence the case study was confined to Estate Sector. From the soil analytical values and economics of fertilizer usage of the nine estates studied, the following observations are made. 1. In general organic carbon status of the soil was found to be medium, though high values were also recorded in some fields. 2. The available phosphorus status of the soil was found to be low in most of the cases. 3. Except in one estate, all the estates were low in available potassium. The observation on the leaf analytical value are as follows: 1. Nitrogen status was in the medium range in most of the cases and only in few cases it is high. 2. Leaf phosphorus was found to be in medium to high range inspite of low available soil phosphorus. 3. Leaf potassium also followed same trend as leaf phosphorus. Economics of fertilizer usage based on soil and leaf analisis revealed the following: Savings in quantity as well as the cost of fertiliser could be made in seven estates. The cost of fertilizer saved per hectare was found to be Rs. 31.23. Eventhough in two estates no savings in quantity as well as in the cost of fertilizer could be made by adopting discriminatory approach, it was possible to maintain the balance among the nutrients in these estates preventing the likely drop of yield.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of ocimum lines for herbage yield oil content and eugenol(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1988) Maya, S Nair; KAU; Sreekandan Nair, GInvestigations on “Evaluation of Ocimum lines for herbage yield, oil content and eugenol” was carried out at the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 1985-86. Twentyfour Ocimum lines collected from different places from the state and the country along with one strain (Clocimum) released from RRL-Jammu were evaluated adapting simple lattice design with the following objectives. 1) To select better types based on leaf colour aroma and flavour, 2) To study the growth and flushing behaviour of each type and to isolate superior ones having better flushing characters; 3) To select a purple coloured O. sanctum line for the Kerala homesteads; 4) To select eugenol rich strains to undertake large scale cultivation of Ocimum for essential oil production; 5) To explore the possibility of growing Clocimum under Vellanikkara conditions. The crop was raised adopting the standard package of practices recommendations. The main growth parameters studied were plant height, spread, height at first branching, total number of branches per plant, number of days to blooming, intervals of flushing and leaf area. The yield parameters studied were herbage yield per plant, herbage yield per hectare, oil content, oil yield per hectare. An attempt was also made to relate leaf colour and aroma with the eugenol content of different Ocimum lines. The results indicated that the plant height increased with the age of plants. The plant spread and total number of branches per plant were maximum during July-August and afterwards a definite pattern was not observed. Clocimum and O. gratissimum lines branched at lower heights compared to O. sanctum lines. In general, all the lines tested took more time to initial flowering after transplanting, than after first or second harvests. Clocimum and O. gratissimum lines exhibited a tendency for quick flushing but took more days for flowering after each harvest compared to O. sanctum lines. O. gratissimum lines including Clocimum have higher leaf area. The studies on yield parameters revealed that Clocimum was most superior with regard to herbage yield, oil content and eugenol followed by O. gratissimum lines. Clocimum produced a herbage yield of 59.36 tonnes/ha/year. While the highest yielder of O. sanctum produced only 22.93 tonnes/ha/year. The different lines in general, produced maximum herbage and oil yield during second harvest, followed by the third and first harvests, whereas the oil content was maximum during the third harvest followed by the second and first harvests. The percentage of eugenol was maximum in Clocimum (71.82 per cent) followed by a purple coloured O. sanctum line (59.05 per cent) collected from Nellankara, near Trichur. Clocimum produced maximum eugenol per hectare followed by O. gratissimum lines. The scoring on leaf colour and aroma with respect to eugenol content revealed that, green leaved lines had better aroma than purple leaved with one purple coloured line as exception. Here also Clocimum proved its superiority. Economics of cultivation and distillation of different ocimum lines revealed that cultivation of Clocimum is more profitable than all other Ocimum lines evaluated. When we consider the various characters of 25 different Ocimum lines, it is very well clear that Clocimum can be groomed as a commercial crop under Kerala conditions. If there is a preference for purple coloured type of O. sanctum (Krishna Thulsi) the line from Nellankara can be recommended especially for the homesteads. Hence, further investigation to probe the possibilities of growing these promising lines as pure and mixed crops in Kerala and techniques for identifying valuable chemical constituents other than eugenol is suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of spacing and planting material on the growth, yield and active principle in Plumbago rosea L.(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1990) Subha, S; KAU; Sreekandan Nair, GInvestigations on "Effect of spacing and planting material on the growth, yield and active principle in Plumbago rosea L." was conducted at the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 1987-88, using factorial RBD design for exploiting this valuable medicinal plant with the following objectives: (1). To standardise the size of shoots as planting material for commercial cultivation. (2). To standardise the best spacing for better growth, yield and active principle. (3). To explore the possibility of growing Plumbago rosea L. as a commercial crop. (4). To explore the possibility of grooming this plant as an annual plant.ThesisItem Open Access Flower bud differentiation in piper sp.(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Rajan, P S; KAU; Mohanakumaran, NStudies were undertaken at the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 1983-’84 in Panniyur-1 and Karimunda varieties of pepper to collect information on the factors influencing flower bud differentiation and on the histological aspects of the process. Among the climatic factors maximum and minimum temperature during the preceding summer as well as the monsoon showers exhibited significant positive correlation with flower bud differentiation process. Among the nutritional factors studied, carbohydrates and C/N ratio were found to be high prior to the peak differentiation period. However, these failed to show significant statistical correlation. Significant accumulation of nitrogen was found in the shoots prior to differentiation. Phosphorus and potassium contents were not correlated with the process. Inhibitor content of the shoots prior to differentiation was found to negatively influence the process. Peak period of differentiation was observed from the middle of June to the end of July in Panniyur-1, while it was a little advanced in Karimunda (from the beginning of June to the middle of July). There were no fundamental differences in the histological aspects of flower bud differentiation between the two varieties. The bud which was conical during the vegetative phase changed into a dome shaped structure during the transition. Afterwards, this grew into a cylindrical structure on the sides of which bract and flower primordial developed in aeropetal succession. Differentiation and development of ovary wall, integuments, ovules, pollen sacs, pollen grains etc. followed. The whole process of differentiation was completed within about 25 days of its commencement.ThesisItem Open Access Impact of rubber producers societies on rubber plantation industry in Kasargod District(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1991) Jose, M J; KAU; Nazeem, P ARubber Producers Societies were formed among small rubber growers to improve their rubber production, productivity, processing and marketing facilities. The survey was conducted to evaluate the impact of Rubber Producers Society on rubber plantation industry in Kasargod District. 110 Rubber Producers Society members in the district were contacted for this purpose using a structured interview schedule the data were collected from the respondents and analysed by simple statistical producers such as percentage, means and standard deviations. The major findings of the study could be summarised as follows.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of the incidence of pink disease in rubber plantations in Kanjirapally Taluk, Kerala State(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1991) Jain, P M; KAU; Sreekandan Nair, GA survey was conducted to study the intensity of the incidence of pink disease in Rubber Plantations of Kanjirapally Taluk, Kerala State. The clonal susceptibility, percentage of damage, control measures adopted by growers and recovery were also evaluated. Maximum incidence is noticed in RRII 105 and minimum in PB 235. The disease incidence is maximum in the 7th year . Bordeaux paste is the common fungicide used against this disease. But only few growers know the correct method of preparation and application of Bordeaux paste. Careless disposal of infected plant parts provide large inoculum for the spread of the disease. The growers fail to detect the disease sufficiently early to carry out effective control measures. Therefore need for an intensive extension education to create awareness in small growers about the disease and its timely control is evident from this study.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on fertility status of rubber growing soils in Kottayan Taluk(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1991) Parameshwaran Nair, K; KAU; Srikantan Nair, GTo assess the fertility status of the Rubber growing soils of Kottayam Taluk analytical data of five locations in Kottayam Taluk viz, Kooropada, Thiruvanchoor, Meenadam, Kottachira and Amayannur covering 200 small holdings including their case history were studied and the study revealed the following. All the soils tested were lateritic and acidic. Generally organic matter status was medium to high. Phosphorus and pottasium status were very low and Magnesium status medium to high. Tapioca intercropped areas showed depletion of nitrogen status. There was no depreciation of Phosphorus and Pottassium status in intercropped areas. Areas with leguminus ground covers showed better nitrogen status. Response to fertiliser was pronounced in the first four years and response was poor from 5th year onwards. All the small holdings were planted with modern high yielding clones and the trend is to follow Boards recommendation for manuring.ThesisItem Open Access Tapping systems adopted by small growers of Taliparamba taluk and its impact on yield of rubber(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1994) Raghu Raman, V; KAU; Nazeem, P AA detailed study was conducted among the small growers of Alakode and Payyavoor villages of Thaliparamba taluk in order to ascertain the extent of adoption of scientific tapping and processing method . Eightly seven holdings representing the highly concentrated rubber growing areas of the taluk under different size groups were selected for the investigations and the growers interviewed with a pre- tested questionnaire. Size of the holding s varied from 0.20 to 1.60 ha and the units have been sorted out in to 4 groups. Average size of the holding was 0.51 ha in respect of R R I I 105 and 0.39 ha in respect of GTI. Since the Rubber Board officials used to visit the holdings during immaturity period to assess the eligibility for the disbursement of subsidy, maintenance of all young rubber areas were satisfactory. But once the plants attain maturity , maintenance , tapping , processing etc . are done according to the knowledge, ideas and convenience of the growers and workers. Standard of tappability , height of opening , slope of tapping cut and time of tapping were found followed as per the recommendations. Alternative daily i.e, 1/2Sd/2 system of tapping was more prevalent. While 94 per cent followed 1/2Sd/2 system 6 per cent adopted1/2S d/2 system of tapping . Of the two clones RRII 105 and GTI tapping panel dryness (TPD)was observed in RRII 105@5 percent were tapping is done at an intensity of 1/22S d/2 i.e ., 100 per cent on Bo 1 panel . In the same clone units tapped at a frequency of 67 percent , on BO 1 panel, i.e., 1/2S d/3 intensity of tapping , panel dryness is slightly low i.e., 2.5 percent. In GT1, TPD is dismally low-1 percent even at 100 percent intensity. However, the GT1 , plants in the surveyed area were older and tapping was in progress in BO 2 panel, compared with the RRII 105 trees. Rain guarding is done by only 24 per cent growers. Drop in yield after rainy season is reported by many experienced growers and this makes many growers hesitant to rain guard their trees. Panel protection with fungicides in rain guarded trees is a must and it has to be done periodically. In rain guarded trees the panel protection with fungicide once in a week was observed in 99 per cent holdings whereas 1 per cent did it once in 14 days. In the units which were not rain guarded 45 per cent treated the panel with wound dressing compounds and 8 percent only white washed the panel. Units which did not give any panel treatment accounted to 23 per cent. Number of additional tapping days obtained by the rain guarding varied from 25 to 50days. This was depending up on the time of rain guarding of rain obtained in the respective localities . A good number of units obtained 41to 45 additional tapping days which accounted 48 per cent of the total number units rain guarded. It was also found that , alternate daily tapping is more prevelant among the growers. Though RRII 105 is recommended for once in three days tapping, 94 per cent holdings adopted alternate daily tapping for the clone RRII 105, while 6 percent followed once in three days tapping . From the study it is concluded that TPD is more in RRII 105 units tapped alternative daily i.e., 1/2 S d/2 compared to the units of the same clone tapped once in three days i.e ., 1/2S D/3. Small growers are much hesitant to adopt once in three days tapping because of constraints like financial difficulties, that arised due to the drop in yield and income , co – operation from the workers etc . Clone –wise average yield obtained per hectare has been worked out . RRII 105 was found definitely yielding better than GTI. Though the yield obtained under ½ S d/3 system was lesser than that of ½ system there was no substantial difference which can be considered as an advandage, as percentage of infection of TPD in those units is very low. It was noted that 92 per cent of RRII 105 and 100 per cent of GTI units processed their rubber in to ribbed smoked sheets and 8 per cent units of RRII 105 sold their latex as field latex . Cup lumps and tree lace from all the units were disposed as raw. From the survey and the field experience obtained otherwise it is concluded that generally the growers are not giving much importance to scientific methods of cultural operations and exploitation. Majority of the growers being small growers who lack awareness and suffer from financial constraints want to extract the crop, process it and sell in the market . At the same time , in the market also quality consciousness is not seen. In order to enlight the growers about the need for the adoption of scientific methods of exploitation system, proceessing methods and to improve the quality of sheet rubber it is essentional to reorient and strengthen the extension work so as to effectively transfer the modern technologies to the progressive farmers.
