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ThesisItem Open Access Utilisation of dairy industry solid waste as an organic source in soil productivity(Department of soil science and agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2004) Indu, B; KAU; Usha, MathewAn investigation entitled ‘Utilization of dairy industry solid waste as an organic waste in soil productivity’ was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani to study the feasibility of using dairy industry solid waste (dsw) as an organic source for improving soil productivity. The experiment consisted of four parts viz., characterization of dsw, vermicomposting of dsw, incubation study to monitor the changes in physical property, nutrient availability and microbial population in soil and pot culture experiment to study the influence of cdsw on amaranthus. The dairy waste collected from TRCMPU Ltd. at Ambalathara, Thiruvananthapuram was used in the present study. The physico-chemical and microbial analysis of dsw were done using suitable analytical procedures. Vermicomposting was carried out in pits of size 1 m x 0.5 m x 0.5 m using vegetable wastes, ground dsw and cowdung in the ratio 5:3:1 by the activity of earthworm Eudrillus eugeniae. Vermicompost was prepared according to package of practices recommendations of Kerala Agricultural University. Incubation study was conducted at the laboratory to monitor the nutrient release pattern and changes in physical properties and microbial population in soil. Two kg of soil was taken in plastic containers of uniform size and incubated at 60 per cent field capacity for three months after application of treatments. The experiment was laid out in CRD with seven treatments viz., T0 - absolute control, T1 – soil + 25 g fym, T2 – soil + 25 g dsw, T3 – soil + 12 ½ g fym + 12 ½ g dsw, T4 – soil 12 ½ g fym + 6 ¼ g dsw, T5 – soil + 12 ½ g cdsw, T6 –soil+ 6 ¼ g cdsw. Physico-chemical and microbilogical properties of soil were analysed at an interval of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks. The pot culture experiment was conducted to study the influence of dsw on growth, yield and quality of amaranthus. It was laid out in CRD with a treatments viz., T0 – absolute control, T1 – fertilizers and fym as per POP, T2 – POP fertilizers and 50 t ha-1 cdsw, T3 – POP fertilizers + fym 25 t ha-1 and cdsw 25 t ha-1, T4 – POP fertilizers and fym 25 t ha-1 and cdsw 12 ½ t ha-1, T5 – 2/3 N + full NPK of POP + fym 25 t ha-1 and cdsw 25 t ha-1, T6 – 2/3 N + full PK of POP and fym 25 t ha-1 + cdsw 12 ½ t ha-1, T7 – ½ N + full PK of POP + fym 25 t ha-1 + cdsw 25 t ha-1, T8 – ½ N + full PK of POP and fym 25 t ha-1 and cdsw 12 ½ t ha-1. Observations on various biometric and yield parameters have been recorded and analysis of plant sample were done at three stages of growth of plant viz., 30, 45 and 60 days after transplanting. The nutrient status of soil after the experiment was also analysed. Analysis of physico-chemical and microbial properties of dsw revealed that it had a near neutral pH (6.5) and it contained 37.5 per cent organic carbon, 5.80 per cent N, 2.04 per cent P, 0.71 per cent K, 1.69 per cent Ca, 1.58 per cent Mg, 1.71 per cent Fe, 159 mg kg 1 Mn and 1084 mg kg 1 Zn. Population of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in dsw were 13.3 x 106, 11.6 x 104 and 1.3 x 104 respectively. The results of the study revealed that vermicomposting can be successfully done in dsw using Eudrillus eugeniae. Vermicompost with a C : N ratio of 11.12 was obtained after 60 days of composting. The final compost contained 3.12 per cent N, 1.97 per cent P, 1.81 per cent K, 2.05 per cent Ca, 3.55 per cent Mg, 0.80 per cent Fe, 230 mg kg-1 Mn, 408 mg kg-1 Zn and 44 mg kg¬-1 Cu. Number of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in the compost at maturity stage were 42.6 x 106, 38.6 x 104 and 21.3 x 104 respectively. From the incubation study, it can be seen that nutrient content of soil increased upto 6-8 weeks in all treatments except T0 followed by a gradual decline. All nutrients except Cu were more on cdsw applied treatment in the initial period. Cu content was more in fym applied treatment. Nutrient availability was more from fym applied treatments during later periods of incubation. Bulk density of soil decreased in all treatments except T0 upto six weeks of incubation followed by a gradual increase in 8 and 12 weeks. Treatment in which cdsw was applied at higher dose showed the lowest bulk density. Upto six weeks the highest water holding capacity was noticed in cdsw applied treatments, after that fym applied treatments showed highest water holding capacity. Bacterial and fungal population reached the peak in sixth week and then declined. Upto eight weeks the effect of treatments was non significant with respect to actinomycete population. The pot culture experiment indicated the influence of cdsw on growth, yield and quality of amaranthus. Biometric and yield observation have proved the superiority of cdsw over fym. Beta-carotene content was more in cdsw applied treatments. Total yield and B:C ratio were the highest when cdsw was used as a partial substitute for fym. Physico-chemical properties of soil after the pot culture experiment revealed that pH, EC, organic carbon and available nutrients increased in all treatment except in T0 compared to the initial soil. pH, EC, organic carbon, available P, Ca and Fe were the highest in T2 which received cdsw at higher dose while the available N, K, Mg, Mn, Zn and Cu were the highest in T1 which received fym. From the results it can be concluded that effective biomanagement of dsw can be carried out using Eudrillus eugeniae. Better availability of nutrients especially nitrogen from cdsw compared to fym immediately after application as evidenced by incubation study is advantageous for short duration leafy vegetables. Use of cdsw can reduce the use of fym partially or fully in amaranthus. Fertilizer N can also be reduced to the extent of 1/3 of POP recommendation.ThesisItem Open Access Evaluation of latex sludge as a phosphorus source in crop production(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2004) Simi, Sathyaseelan; KAU; Sumam, GeorgeA detailed investigation entitled ‘Evaluation of latex sludge as a phosphorus source in crop production’ was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, with chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) as the test crop. Preliminary studies in both India and abroad had shown this waste product of latex concentrate industry to be a rich source of plant nutrients especially P. Initially the basic physico-chemical properties of this sludge material were estimated followed by an incubation study in which its P release pattern was compared with that of two conventional P sources -SSP and RP. Then pot culture experiments were undertaken to study its direct and residual effects on the growth and yield characters of chilli var. Jwalamukhi. Chemically, latex sludge is magnesium ammonium phosphate. Analytical studies revealed it to be near neutral (pH 6.49) in reaction which is mainly due to the pH buffering effect of its magnesium phosphate component. So, no significant variation in soil pH was observed both in the incubation study as well as in the pot culture experiments and in this respect it is comparable with the conventional P sources- SSP and RP. The total P content is 35.98 per cent grading it superior to rock phosphates now popular in market as commercial fertilizers. Of the total P, 13 per cent is water soluble and 36 per cent citrate soluble, together accounting for nearly half of the gross P content. The presence of both fractions gives latex sludge an added advantage over SSP and RP, in that it can provide both readily available and slowly available forms of P, making it suitable for a wide range of crops and soils. Another positive property of latex sludge is the presence of Mg (6.86 per cent) and N (6.05 per cent) in it. Mg has been found to be required by many plants in about the same quantities as P to increase their photosynthetic efficiency. The N is present in readily available form too ie., as ammonium phosphate. The presence of about five per cent organic C is another advantage as it enhances phosphate dissolution capacity of the material. In addition, it can supply minute quantities of K and Ca (less than one per cent). On the basis of its chemical profile, latex sludge can be considered more or less as a complete complex fertilizer. The greatest advantage is its ability to act as a slow release fertilizer, a property bestowed on it by the encapsulation of nutrients by rubber residues present in low concentration. The dynamics of important soil chemical properties on incubation with latex sludge (T1), SSP (T2) and RP (T3) were studied against a control (T4, soil alone) for a period of 120 days. These sources were applied to one kg soil taken in plastic containers, to provide P @ 40 kg ha-1 and the soil was maintained at field capacity. The superiority of latex sludge in increasing the soil organic C content was very much evident from the incubation study, even though there was an initial delay. From the 30th day onwards latex sludge was significantly superior to RP and SSP, the values gradually increasing to a maximum by the 75th day followed by a slow decline. The available N values were the highest for latex sludge applied soil throughout the incubation period except on the 105th day. From 30th to the 90th day these values were significantly superior to those for SSP and RP applied soils. The different P sources exerted significant influence on soil available P contents throughout the incubation period. On the 15th day, the water soluble phosphates of SSP maintained its superiority by recording a value significantly higher than that of all other sources. The next highest value was recorded by latex sludge and was significantly superior to RP. But from the 30th day onwards, P release from latex sludge and SSP became statistically comparable and significantly superior to that from RP. The uniform release pattern of both latex sludge and SSP continued till the 90th day and thereafter the three sources became on par in their P release capacities. The superior effect of latex sludge in maintaining a high soil available P till about 90th day is therefore very much evident and is mainly due to the presence of both water and citrate soluble P fractions in it. The available K levels in soil remained unaffected throughout the incubation period despite P application in different forms. The various P sources could produce significant variations in soil exchangeable Ca and Mg levels only towards the middle period of the incubation. In general, latex sludge was seen on par with RP in increasing soil exchangeable Ca but the Mg release pattern showed high inconsistency. The agronomic efficiency of latex sludge was evaluated by conducting pot culture experiments laid out in CRD with a main and a residue crop of chilli var. Jwalamukhi. The treatments included T1 (full P as LS), T2 (full P as SSP), T3 (full P as RP), T4 (¼ LS + ¾ SSP), T5 (½ LS + ½ SSP), T6 (¾ LS + ¼ SSP), T7 (¼ LS + ¾ RP), T8 (½ LS + ½ RP), T9 (¾ LS + ¼ RP), T10 (No P) and T11 (absolute control). Urea, muriate of potash and FYM were applied uniformly to all treatments except absolute control, as per Package of Practices Recommendations of Kerala Agricultural University. The P fertilizers were applied as per treatment schedule. The growth characters of chilli registered the maximum values when full P was given as SSP (T2). But, the effects were statistically on par with the combination treatment T8 (½ LS + ½ RP). Yield in general was favourably enhanced when latex sludge was applied along with RP. The highest yield was recorded by T7 (¼ LS + ¾ RP) but it was on par with T8 (½ LS + ½ RP). The economic analysis (benefit-cost ratio) also showed the same trend of yield. The quality traits of chilli also testified the suitability of latex sludge as an alternate P source. The treatment combination T8 (½ LS + ½ RP) registered values which were either the highest or on par with the highest. The plant uptake of nutrients, a major yield contributing factor, also showed trends in favour of latex sludge. The uptake of N, P, K, Ca and Mg which were significantly influenced by the treatments were the highest or on par with the highest for the combination treatment, T8. Chemical analysis of soil upon crop harvest indicated that the combination treatment T8 (½ LS + ½ RP) could maintain higher levels of available N, P and exchangeable Mg. Full P as latex sludge (T1) recorded the highest organic C content and was significantly higher than all other treatments. The residual effects of the treatments were studied by raising another crop of same variety of chilli in the same pots using the same soil following all the cultural operations as for the main crop except P addition. The highest residual effect of P was exhibited by the combination treatment T8 (½ LS + ½ RP) manifested by recording the highest fruit yield and thereby the highest returns. The high residual effect of T8 (½ LS + ½ RP) was also evident from its highest P uptake indicating adequate P availability inspite of its lack of application to the current crop. Moreover, the uptake of other nutrients was either the highest or on par with the highest value for the same treatment (T8). The present investigation, therefore, undoubtedly proves that latex sludge can be used as an alternate and cheap source of P in crop production. The combination treatment T8 (½ LS + ½ RP) emerges superior on the basis of its direct and residual effects on growth, yield and quality characters of chilli. Economic analysis substantiates this further. Moreover, use of this apparently ecofriendly material in crop production will be a boon in terms of its disposal also.ThesisItem Open Access Synerigistic effect of Na and K on yield and nutrient uptake in Coleus (Coleus praviflorus L)(Department of Soil Science & Agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2004) Neenu, S; KAU; Sudharmai Devi, CA field experiment was carried out in College of Agriculture, Vellayani during September 2003 to January 2004 to study the “Synergistic effect of Na and K on yield and nutrient uptake in coleus (Coleus parviflorus L.)”. The treatments included were 50 and 100 per cent of the recommended dose of K alone and in combination with 50, 75 and 100 per cent of Na of common salt to equalize the same amount of recommended dose of K. The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block Design. The plant growth characteristics like plant spread, number of functional leaves and LAI showed significant variation due to treatments. The highest values for these parameters were registered by K and Na at 50:50 proportions, showing the synergistic interaction of the two elements at this combination. Leaf water content varied significantly due to treatments. The 50 per cent K plus 75 per cent Na treated plants showed highest value of RLWC. Even though the chlorophyll content did not show significant difference between treatments, it increased with Na application along with 50 per cent K, revealing a role of Na in chlorophyll biosynthesis Tuber yield did not show any significant difference due to treatments. Even then the 50:50 combinations of Na and K treatment gave the highest tuber yield followed by 100 per cent K plus 50 per cent Na treated plants. The yield attributes like number of tubers, weight of tubers and tuber index did not vary significantly. Among the quality attributes, starch content varied significantly due to treatments. The treatment with 100 per cent K plus 75 per cent Na gave the highest value of starch followed by the 50:50 combinations of Na and K. The cooking quality of treatments T3 (100 per cent K alone), T4 (50 per cent K plus 50 per cent Na) and T5 (50 per cent K plus 75 per cent Na) were similar. The shelf life of 100 per cent K plus 100 per cent Na treated tubers were found to be the highest. There was an increase in the content of N, K, Ca and Mg in the plants when Na was also supplied as treatment. Consequently the uptake of nutrients increased with the application of different levels of Na along with 50 per cent K. This shows that Na has a stimulative effect on uptake of nutrients. Application of Na did not affect any soil properties like pH, EC and organic carbon. The available nutrients like N, P, Ca and Mg increased in Na treated plots Yield of tuber was positively and significantly correlated with the dry matter production and uptake of Ca. Yield was positively correlated with the uptake of all nutrients under study. From the above points, it can be concluded that a combination of 50 per cent K and 50 per cent Na is optimum for getting the maximum yield. From the present study it also became evident that the efficiency of nutrient uptake increased at this combination. By adopting this practice, it was seen that the quality of coleus tubers improved and they became nutritionally more rich. This practice was found to be economically more feasible. Considering all these aspects, this fertilizer practice can be recommended to the farmers for getting a higher profit. From this investigation we can clearly establish a synergistic interaction of the two monovalent nutrient ions, K and Na on the growth and yield of coleus.ThesisItem Open Access Soil properties and produce quality of Cardamom(Elettaria cardamomum Maton) under organic farming(Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2004) Arun, G; KAU; Saifudeen, NAn investigation was conducted at the Upputhara panchayath of Peermede taluk, in Idukki district of Kerala with the objective to compare the soil properties, crop nutrient concentrations and quality of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) under organic and conventional farming.' Nine certified organic farms, that follow IMO and Skal International certification standards and eight adjacent conventional cardamom farms following recommendations of Spices Board were selected for investigation. Fifty samples each of soil and cardamom leaves were drawn from both organic and conventional farms. Cured cardamom samples were collected from each farm under study. A proforma was developed in accordance with the standards fixed by IFOAM for documenting farming practices of the study area Biometric parameters and yield attributes of cardamom plants were observed directly and yield data for the organic and conventional cardamom farms were collected from farm records during the survey. The orgaruc farms selected for the study did not follow strict package of practices and there were variations among individual farms, but within the purview of certification procedures. Conventional and organic farming practices of the study area differed mainly on fertilization policy, plant protection strategy, weed control and land management. Soils of the organic cardamom farms were found to have better aeration than conventional farms, evident from the significantly lower bulk density of soils of the organic farrns. Another significant effect of organic agriculture in cardamom was the improvement of soil electrochemical properties. The rich organic soils of the study area resulted in insignificant difference in organic carbon and organic matter content of the soils of the two farming systems. The ranges of major nutrients in soils were medium to high and hence the difference between organic and conventional cardamom farms with respect to major nutrients was also not consistent. Microbes were proliferating in the organic farms resulting in better decomposition of organic matter with concomitant solubility of major nutrients in the soil. But dehydrogenase enzyme activity of the soil didn't differ significantly. Conventional farming with chemical inputs enhanced morphological make up of cardamom plants. Leaf length, leaf breadth, plant height and number of tillers per clump were significantly low in organic cardamom plants. A reverse trend was seen in the case of petiole length. Panicle length, number of panicles per clump, number of racemes per panicle and number of capsules per raceme were significantly lower in organic farms contributing to lower yields, which of course are expected to improve as farming practices stabilize in due course. Since the morphological make up of the cardamom plants in the organic farms was relatively smaller, the minerals taken up were not diluted resulting in higher concentrations of major nutrients in organically managed plants. The effect of high levels of Ca in the exchange complex is also reflected in low uptake of Fe and Mn by organic cardamom plants. Size of fresh cardamom capsules, colour, and litre weight were higher in the organically produced cardamom samples. However, the number of seeds per capsule was lower in organic cardamom. Both oleoresin and volatile oil contents were found significantly superior in the organic to that of conventional cardamom.ThesisItem Open Access Taxonomy, productivity potential and erodibility of the soils under different land use systems in selected watersheds of the Western Ghats region in Kerala(Kerala Agricultural University;Thiruvananthapuram, 2004) Anup, V.M.; KAU; Venugopal, V.K.