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2011 - 201922
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Subject: Horticulture × End date: 2019 × Start date: 2010 × Type: Thesis × Thesis Type: Ph.D ×
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Process optimisation and quality evaluation of cocoa based chocolates
    (Department of Community Science, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2019) Shahanas, E; KAU; Seeja, Thomachan Panjikkaran
    Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is a supporting crop to farmers due to its remunerative income, which forms the basis for one of the world’s most popular food products chocolate. The quality of final product depends upon the fermented dried beans. High free fatty acid content is a serious quality defect and reduces the economic value of the cocoa beans. Recently, the cocoa trade has assumed a more scientific position and a lot of emphasis are placed on the content of free fatty acid. A reduction in the free fatty acids level will definitely have a positive impact. As such there is a need for the farmers to carry more intensive research and to develop and technology for the standardisation of free fatty acid content in the processing stages of cocoa in both primary and secondary processing. The present study was undertaken to develop protocol for primary processing of cocoa beans based on free fatty acid content (<1.75 %), to standardise the time and temperature of chocolate making using machine and to evaluate the quality attributes and shelf life of the products. Cocoa fermentation was carried out with three different types of fermentation methods like basket, heap and sack method for the periods of 5, 6 and 7 days of fermentation with nine different treatments. The physico-chemical qualities of fermented cocoa beans were evaluated. The highest (84.99%) fermentation index or cut test score was recorded in heap method at seventh day of fermentation (T6). The highest fermentation bean recovery of 84.33% was noticed in treatment T4 in heap method at fifth day of fermentation. The moisture content vary from 50.40 %, 53.67% and 54.40% to 39.80%, 37.83% and 39.43% from initial to seventh day of fermentation in sack, heap and basket method respectively. The pH of fermented beans varied from 6.11 to 4.26 in all methods. Among the fermentation methods the maximum fat content was in heap method from initial 42.66% to 32.89%. The lipase activity, decreased with fermentation periods in all three fermentation methods. In heap method it varied from 0.0022 to 0.0005. The heap method with seven days of fermentation were selected to sun drying and oven drying based on the lowest free fatty acid content (0.80%). The bean recovery of fermented dried beans was high (41.00 %) in sun dried cocoa beans as compared to oven dried beans (40.12 %). The free fatty acid content (1.26 %) in sun dried cocoa beans was less compared to 1.47% in T2 (oven dried beans). The moisture content (3.76%) and lipase activity (0.0018μ eq) was less but, the fat content and pH was high in sun dried beans. The sun drying proved to be adaptive as free fatty acid content was lower than oven dried beans and were below the cut off value of 1.75%. The sun dried beans were stored in gunny bags (control), polythene covers and plastic containers under ambient condition for a period of six months and the physico-chemical qualities of stored cocoa beans were done initially and at an interval of one month for a duration of six months. The highest bean recovery (98%) and least moisture content (4.22 to 4.52) was in cocoa beans stored in plastic container at the end of sixth month of storage. The lowest free fatty acid content of 1.68% was in cocoa beans stored in plastic container at sixth month after storage. The stored cocoa beans in plastic container were divided into two lots, one lot was used as such and the second lot was subjected to alkalisation. The chocolates was prepared with alkalised and non alkalised cocoa beans in tempering and conching machine for different time periods of 7, 9 and 11 hours at a temperature of 600C and 700. After the preparation of different types of alkalised and non alkalised chocolates in tempering and conching machine, chocolates were subjected to analysis of physico-chemical qualities, organoleptic evaluation and for enumeration of microflora. The treatment T6 (Chocolate prepared at 700C for 11 hours) and T12 (700C for 11hours) had the lowest free fatty acid content of 1.67% and 1.68% and maximum score for overall acceptability (8.89 and 8,87). Chocolates prepared at 700C for 11 hours from alkalised and non alkalised beans were blended with dehydrated grapes, dehydrated dates, osmodehydrated jackfruit, osmodehydrated pineapple, badam, cashew nut, powdered dehydrated mint leaves and white pepper powder. From the, organoleptic evaluation of different treatments, the best rated treatments from alkalised chocolates were T3 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% osmodehydrated jack fruit), T6 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% badam) and T8 (95 % alkalised chocolates +5% white pepper) and from non alkalised chocolates the treatments T11 (95 % non alkalised chocolates +5% osmodehydrated jack fruit), T14 (chocolate blended with 95 % non alkalised chocolates and 5% badam) and T16 (95 % non alkalised chocolates and 5% white pepper powder) were selected, packed in aluminium foil and stored in refrigerator for six months. Initially the lowest hardness of 74.41N and 76.71N was recorded in controls (T0 - AC) and (T0 – NAC. The maximum energy content of 580.15Kcal was found in treatment T5 (95 % NAC+5% B). Initially the maximum protein content (7.74 g/100g) was noticed in treatment T2 (95 % AC+5% B) and T5 (95 % NAC+5% B). The highest polyphenol content ranging from 0.23g/100g to 0.19g/100g was seen in T0 (100% NAC) throughout the storage periods. A reduction in mineral contents like calcium, phosphorus and iron content was observed in all treatments and at the end of sixth month calcium content varied from 0.39g/100g to 0.63g/100g. An increase in lipase activity and free fatty acid content of blended chocolates was recorded during storage and FFA was within 1.75% up to fourth month of storage. Based on organoleptic score, the treatment T2 (95 % AC+5% B) attained the highest rank. The blended chocolates were evaluated for the presence of bacteria, yeast and mould initially and monthly intervals for a period of six months, At the end of sixth month of storage the highest bacterial count of 2.0 x 104 cfu/g was found and during sixth month of storage. The cost for blended chocolates was varied from Rs.46.54 to Rs.50.62 / 40 g of chocolate bar. The cost of the chocolates prepared in the present study was lesser as compared to the commercial chocolates. The present study found that good quality, nutritious and healthy blended chocolates using cocoa could be prepared without adding any preservatives. The blended chocolates contain treasure of nutrients and bioactive compounds polyphenol which is essential for the growth and development of children and also give several health benefits.
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Morpho-Molecular charaterisation of intergeneric hybrids of Ascocentrum
    (Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Katare Renuka, Shamrao; KAU; Sobhana, A.
    Morpho-molecular characterisation intergeneric hybrids of Ascocentrum was conducted at the Department of Floriculture and landscaping, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, during 2016-19 with the objective of characterising based on morphological and molecular analysis for commercial exploitation and compatibility assessment. Thirty varieties selected for the morphological characterisation. In quantitative characters Mok. Omayaiy Yellow showed highest plant height, internodal length and leaf breadth throughout the study period. Plant spread, leaf length and leaf area were highest in Kag. Youthong Beauty. Mok. Sayan × Ascda. Doung Porn was observed with highest shoot girth, shoot diameter and number of leaves. Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. JVB showed maximum number of roots, Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Jiraprapa was observed with the highest root length and Mok. Chao Praya Sunset Yellow Spot with the highest root girth. Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty had the least values in all vegetative characters throughout the study period including plant height, spread, internodal length, shoot, leaf and root characters except the number of leaves which was the least in Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Jiraprapa. Variety Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty also produced the maximum number of florets/spike and had the shortest internodal length. Cluster analysis with 14 different floral characters revealed 12 clusters at 75 per cent similarity. The highest inter-cluster distance was observed in cluster 6 and cluster 10. Cluster 6, which included Ascda. Sirichi Fragrance and Vasco Blue Bay White was found to have the lowest internodal length with the highest value LVII for number of florets per spike, also observed to have lower flower length and flower width. Cluster 10 was found to have the high mean values for spike length, flower length and flower width. In qualitative characters, based on growth habit, two types were found among the varieties viz., hanging and prostrate nature of growth. Leaf texture was found smooth and rigid with entire leaf margin. Leaf apex was acute in Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty and Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. JVB and was emarginated in rest of the hybrids. Wide variation was found among the flower colour, colour pattern, nature of petals and lip. Regarding post harvest traits, variety Mok. Omayaiy Yellow recorded highest fresh weight of spike and physiogical loss in weight. Whereas, variety Kag. Youthong Beauty took maximum days to start wilting of a floret. Mok. Chark Kuan Pink was observed to have longest vase life, spike longevity and highest water uptake. In visual evaluation the highest total mean score for the spike to use as a cut flower was observed in Mok. Omayaiy Yellow (54.6 out of 60), while the lowest was observed in Vasco. Blue Bay White. The highest mean score was obtained in Vasco. Pine River Pink (53.83) for plants for the indoor display. In pollen studies Ascda. Sirichi Fragrance and Mok. Sayan × Ascda. Doung Porn showed the highest pollen fertility and germination and these were selected as two male parents for further cross compatibility check. Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty and Kag. Youthong Beauty were found self-incompatible as well as cross incompatible with both the male patents and Vasco. Pine River Blue was found cross incompatible with Mok. Sayan. × Ascda. Doung Porn whereas, the rest of the varieties were found cross-compatible with both the male parents. LVIII Among the 21 SSR primers, ten generated polymorphic patterns. The number of amplicons detected varied from two to seven. The highest number of alleles was found in FJ539054, FJ539061 and JN375718. Primers DQ494847 (3) observed to have less number of amplicons. The PIC value ranged from 0.095 to 0.800.. One unique band was produced by JN375713 and FJ539050 primers in Kag. Samrong and Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty, respectively. The least Jaccard’s similarity value (0.05) was observed between Kag. Samrong and Ascda. Suksamran Sunlight, Ascda. Yip Sum Wah × V. Josephine Van Brero, Vasco. Aroonsri Beauty. The UPGMA clustering algorithm grouped the varieties into two main clusters. The variety Kag. Samrong clustered separately from all other members, whereas, other members were grouped in one cluster. At 50 per cent level of similarity, the hybrids grouped into 13 clusters. Out of 29 ISSR primers used, 20 showed amplification in all hybrids with polymorphic bands. ISSR primer (GACAC) 4 generated 11 amplicons, whereas, ISSR 901 generated 31 amplicons. ISSR primer (GACAC) 4 had lowest PIC value, and UBC810, the highest PIC value (0.926). The least Jaccard’s similarity value (0.03) was observed between Vasco. Blue Bay White and Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Bicentennial Yellow Spot, which indicates that these hybrids are dissimilar to each other. The highest Jaccard’s similarity value was observed between Mok. Khaw Phiak Suan × Ascda. Bicentennial Yellow Spot and Mok. Chao Praya Sunset Yellow Spot. A UPGMA-based dendrogram separated the 20 hybrids of Ascocentrum orchids into two main clusters, each with 10 members. At 30 per cent level of similarity, all the 20 hybrids grouped into 14 different clusters. Six clusters were observed with two members each.
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Investigations on yellowing of black pepper (piper nigrum L.)
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Maddirala Surendra, Babu; KAU; Sujatha, V S
    Black pepper, popularly known as King of Spices or Black gold is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. After foot rot disease, the major constraint in black pepper cultivation is the incidence of yellowing, leading to decline in production year after year. Yellowing is reported to be caused by many abiotic and biotic factors. Symptomatological studies on yellowing showed that per cent severity of yellowing was significantly higher during October-November and was on par during summer. During July-August, yellowing was significantly low. There was no definite pattern in the development and spread of the disease. In case of mild yellowing, there was recovery during July-August. Yellowing gradually increased and severely affected plants failed to recover. There was no flushing or flowering in plants. Such plants died in 2-3 years. All varieties studied were found to be susceptible to yellowing. Yellowing was observed either at the top of pepper column or (and) the bottom of the column. Sometimes yellowing appeared in a group of leaves together. In some aged plants older leaves at terminal portion of plant were yellow. In some leaves the base of lamina near petiole was yellow. This yellowing faded to tip of lamina and margins. Yield and yield contributing characters in healthy, apparently healthy and yellowing affected black pepper plants showed that all the characters of healthy plants showed a higher positive value compared to yellowing affected plants. In the case of yield per plant, there was significant reduction in yield in yellowing affected plants compared to healthy in all varieties except Vijay. In the study on rhizosphere soil nutrient status there was no apparent role of soil pH, OC, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B in causing yellowing in the experimental plots in the present study. All the nutrient elements were in the optimum or high range. There was no significant difference among yellowing affected, apparently healthy and healthy plants in case of N and S where DRIS norms were not available. Among the rhizosphere soil parameters, pH, EC and organic carbon were significantly and positively correlated with yellowing. There was no significant correlation of N, P, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and B content of rhizosphere soil with yellowing in black pepper. K, Ca and Al content of rhizosphere soils showed significant negative correlation with yellowing. Analysis of nutrient status in the plant tissues of yellowing affected, apparently healthy and healthy plants based on DRIS norms suggested by Hamza et al. (2007) indicated that there was deficiency of N in the yellowing affected plants, K content and S content was also low in yellowing affected plants, all other nutrients were not deficient in the yellowing affected plants. Study on soil micro flora (cfu g-1) showed that mean value of fungal population was significantly highest (18.78 ×10 3cfu g-1) in rhizosphere soils of healthy plants compared to apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants. Healthy plants showed significantly low (27.55 ×10 3cfu g-1) population count of actinomycetes in the rhizosphere soil, whereas apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants were statistically on par. Yellowing affected plants showed significantly highest population count of bacteria (25.53 ×10 8cfu g-1) followed by apparently healthy. Healthy plants showed significantly lowest bacterial population. No soil borne pathogens including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia or Fusarium was found associated with yellowing Nematode population in the rhizosphere soils of healthy plants was significantly lowest compared to apparently healthy and yellowing affected plants. Yellowing affected plants showed significantly highest population of Meloidogyne incognita, Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus sp, Helicotylenchus sp, Dorylaimid sp, and Trophotylenchulus sp, in the rhizosphere soil when compared with apparently healthy and healthy plants. In case of root, number of galls on the roots was significantly highest in yellowing affected plants. Considering different categories of nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita followed by Radopholus similis were predominant in the roots of yellowing affected plants. In roots as well as rhizospere soil, significantly highest population of nematodes was observed during October – November followed by February – March. Examination of roots of experimental plants and rhizosphere soil did not show the presence of root mealy bugs or any other insect, which can cause damage to root or yellowing in the plant. There was significant positive correlation of yellowing with maximum temperature. However minimum temperature showed significant negative correlation with yellowing. Relative humidity and rainfall also were significantly and negatively correlated with yellowing. A definite association of plant parasitic nematodes was seen in the plants as well as rhizosphere soils of yellowing affected plants in the present study. Meloidogyne incognita followed by Radopholous similis population was significantly highest in yellowing affected plants indicating their role clearly in causing yellowing. In the present study on the analysis of different factors like soil nutrients, plant pathogenic micro-organisms, soil borne insects, nematodes etc, in causing yellowing gives a clear indication of role of nematodes in causing yellowing in black pepper in the experimental plot in Thrissur district. Even though the nutrient status in the rhizosphere soil of experimental plants was satisfactory, absorption of nutrients was low due to damage of roots caused by nematodes. There was deficiency of nitrogen and low potassium and sulphur levels in the leaves of yellowing affected plants. The yellowing expressed must be due to multiple factors and combined effect of multiple nutrient deficiencies in plant tissue and damage due to nematodes
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Performance analysis of medicinal kaempferia species
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Akoijam Ranjita, Devi; KAU; Mini Raj, N
    The medicinal Kaempferia species are a good source of valuable bioactive compounds. Kaempferia rotunda is widely used in the ancient systems of medicine in India and Indonesia. Kaempferia parviflora, popularly known as black ginger or Thai ginseng, has potential for great exploitation on commercial basis. Rhizomes of K. parviflora are used as aphrodisiac in traditional medicine in Thailand. The present study was undertaken at Department of Plantation crops and Spices, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur to evaluate the medicinal Kaempferia species in terms of morphology, anatomy, floral biology, yield, medicinal as well as pharmacological properties. A total of 18 genotypes belonging to three different species of Kaempferia formed the material for the study. Kaempferia galanga was taken as a reference species. The morphological evaluation was done consecutively for two years (2017-18 and 2018-19) based on qualitative and quantitative parameters. In K. rotunda, there was not much variation in qualitative parameters while the quantitative parameters exhibited tremendous variation among the 13 genotypes evaluated. The fresh rhizome yield ranged from 15.21 to 52.44 g/plant and dry yield of rhizome ranged from 5.00 to 17.73 g/plant. The Manipur collection MCR-6 performed best with the highest fresh as well as dry rhizome yield of 52.44 g and 17.73 g respectively followed by KCR-5 from Kerala. In K. parviflora also, the qualitative parameters did not show much variation whereas the quantitative characters exhibited significant variation among the genotypes. Significantly highest (114.60 g) fresh weight of rhizome was recorded by the genotype KCP-1. The Thailand collection KCP-1 was the best performer followed by BSI-1 from Shillong. The two genotypes of K. galanga evaluated in the study exhibited morphological variation in certain characters, however no significant variation was noticed for rhizome yield. The flowering was observed from May to November in K. parviflora, March to April in K. rotunda and June to July in K. galanga. In the floral biology studies, variation was noticed in floral parts including the pollen grains of the three species with respect to size and shape. The flowers were bisexual, complete, trimerous and zygomorphic in all the species. There were on an average 14.2 number of flowers per inflorescence in K. parviflora, 8.9 flowers in K. rotunda and 5.6 flowers per inflorescence in K. galanga. The time of anthesis was 5.00 am to 7.15 am in K. parviflora, 4.00 to 5.00 am in K. rotunda and in case of K. galanga, peak anthesis time was 4.00 to 5.00 am. The stigma was receptive upto eight hours after the anthesis in K. parviflora whereas K. rotunda and K. galanga remained receptive for 24 hours and nine hours respectively after anthesis. In the in vivo pollen germination studies, pollen germination was noticed only in K. parviflora and K. galanga. The seed set was observed only in K. parviflora. The vivipary was observed in K. parviflora and recalcitrance of the seed was confirmed, thus proving its viviparous nature. The viviparous plants were compared with rhizome borne plants. The number of leaves and tillers were more in viviparous plants when compared with normal plants but they took two years for appreciable yield. However, rhizome yield of viviparous plant was only 1/3rd of that in normal plants. In the anatomical studies, all the three species had collateral and closed type of vascular bundles in transverse section of leaves. The oil globules were present in the leaf lamina of K. galanga. Calcium oxalate crystals were present in the leaf epidermis of K. rotunda and leaf lamina in K. parviflora. Oil globules were abundant in the rhizome of K. rotunda and K. parviflora. Starch granules in rhizome and root tuber were concentrated near endodermal layer in all the species. The flavonoid vacuoles were abundantly present in the rhizome section of K. parviflora. In the biochemical studies, the volatile oil content in K. rotunda rhizome ranged from 0.057 to 3.17 per cent and oleoresin content was to the tune of 0.60 to 3.17 per cent. In K. parviflora, volatile oil content was negligible; oleoresin content ranged 2.03 to 4.17 per cent. The content of starch, total sugars and flavonoids were high in K. parviflora whereas total free amino acid content was high in K. rotunda rhizome. The profiling of volatile oil of K. rotunda by GCMSMS detected 22 compounds, that of K. parviflora indicated 34 compounds and in K. galanga there were 27 compounds. The profiling of ethanolic extract of K. rotunda rhizome by GCMS showed the presence of 18 compounds and that of K. parviflora, eight compounds. The ethanolic extract of rhizome of K. rotunda and K. parviflora were subjected to detailed in vitro as well as in vivo pharmacological studies at the Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, KVASU, Mannuthy. The in vivo acute toxicity and immunomodulatory study was carried out in Swiss albino mice using cyclophosphamide as immunosuppressive agent. No acute toxicity was noticed in the ethanolic extract of both K. rotunda and K. parviflora. Both the species significantly increased the body weight, total leukocyte count, serum protein and decreased neutrophil count in normal as well as immunosuppressed animals. A significant stimulation of humoral and cellular immune response was indicated by increase in antibody titre, bone marrow cellularity and DTH reaction. Histopathology of spleen confirmed the high immunomodulatory effect of K. parviflora and moderate immunomodulatory activity of K. rotunda. In the DPPH assay, K. rotunda exhibited high antioxidant activity (IC50 131.15 μg/ml) while K. parviflora showed lower activity (IC50 198.68±7.62 μg/ml). Ethanolic rhizome extract of both the species exhibited anticancer property in breast cancer cell lines. Both K. rotunda and K. parviflora showed cytotoxicity against MDA MB231 and MCF-7 cell lines. IC50 for K. rotunda was 167.1±5.60 and 194.8±8.97 respectively for MCF-7 and MDA MB231 cell lines while for K. parviflora it was 143.03±2.70 and 126.35±2.53 respectively. The ethanolic extract of K. rotunda and K. parviflora exhibited appreciable antimicrobial activity on E. coli (11.13±0.16 mm, 12.32±0.12 mm), S. enterica (11.47±0.29 mm, 13.8±0.16 mm) and P. aeruginosa (11.52±0.38 mm, 11.17±0.31 mm) and showed potent activity on S. aureus (14.18±0.32 mm, 15.48±0.23 mm).
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Genetic analysis of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrids of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.)
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Vijayakumar Narayanapur, B; KAU; Suma, B
    The genetic analysis of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrid was carried out at College of Horticulture and Cocoa Research Centre (CRC), Vellanikkara, Thrissur. A total of 113 inbreds was evaluated for qualitative and quantitative characters. Cocoa is predominantly out breeding with highly complex genetic structure. The cross pollinating nature coupled with existence of self/cross incompatibility, poses much difficulty to the cocoa breeders. The hybrid progeny from the same cross exhibit high level of variability due to heterogeneous nature of the parents. This can be overcome to certain extent by using fully homozygous inbreds of diverse genotypes. The CRC succeeded in producing first ever fifth generation inbred and it was proved self incompatible. In this context, the present study was formulated to quantify the magnitude of inbreeding depression in yield and yield attributes in various self-generations and to establish a physiological relationship between the vigour of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrids in the early stages of plant growth. The different pollination techniques were tested to overcome the self incompatibility and the extraction of proteins from self incompatible plants was attempted. Morphological characterization of 113 inbreds were carried out by recording qualitative characters such as pod shape, ridge colour, pod apex, pod basal constriction, pod rugosity and bean colour. High variability was observed for all qualitative characters except ridge colour. The pod and bean characterization for 21 characters expressed wide variation among the inbreds and within the inbreds of same genotype. Characterization of inbreds based on the biochemical parameters such as fat and phenol expressed wide variability. The inbreeding depression was estimated for 21 characters in 12 genotypes over generations. In S1 generation of M 18.7, the husk furrow thickness and number of flat beans expressed negative inbreeding depression, whereas the average yield per tree per year has shown a very meager inbreeding depression over the preceding generation. In S2 generation of M 18.7, pod value, conversion index and dry matter recovery have shown an inbreeding depression between 5 to 10 percent. Negative inbreeding depression was observed for husk ridge thickness, number of flat bean per pod, pod index, efficiency index and fat content. In S3 generation of M 18.7, maximum inbreeding depression was observed for wet bean weight per pod followed by pod length. In S4 generation of M 18.7, the highest inbreeding depression of 43.58 per cent was observed for number of pods/tree/year. In S1 generation of G II 7.4, positive inbreeding depression was observed for 10 characters out of 21. In S2 generation of G II 7.4, positive inbreeding depression was observed for 15 characters. Only seven characters expressed positive inbreeding depression in S3 generation of G II 7.4 genotype. In S5 generation inbred, the maximum inbreeding depression (63.95%) was observed for husk furrow thickness, followed by husk ridge thickness (49.02%), In S1 and S2 generation of H1 1.2, positive inbreeding was observed in 16 characters. In general, inbreeding depression was less for economic characters confirming that most of the characters are controlled by additive gene action and lethal gene canceled in heterozygous condition is less. In the comparative evaluation of inbreds, inbred crosses and hybrids, the inbreds were found superior over inbred crosses and hybrids for morphological characters such as plant height, collar girth, plant spread and leaf area. The inbreds also had maximum chlorophyll content, leaf nutrient status and relative water content. The superiority of inbreds was mainly attributed to the growing environmental condition with more of openness in the inbred plantation, which was confirmed with spherical densiometer, an instrument for measuring plantation overstory density. A total of nine techniques to overcome self incompatibility barriers such as bud pollination, surgical technique, intra-ovarian technique, salt spray (1% and 3%), high humidity, high temperature, Naphthalene Acetic Acid (100 and 200 ppm), gamma irradiation and flower organ extract were attempted from September 2016 to March 2017 and September 2017 to March 2018. In all the methods, the fruit set was not obtained except in surgical technique. The majority of self incompatible S3 and S5 inbreds set in to pods through surgical techniques. In the fluorescent microscopic study, the clear disintegration of pollen tube was observed in self incompatible flower in the style. Flowers from fifth generation cocoa inbreds were used for extraction of protein. All the available protein extraction methods were tried and the protein was quantified. In all the methods, the protein content was below 5μg per ml in the cocoa flower. The protein from cocoa leaf was extracted and quantified. In lysis buffer extraction with some modification, a protein content of 7 μg per ml was obtained. Faint bands were observed in SDS PAGE. The flower and leaf protein were subjected for LC Q ToF. The protein content obtained from the flower was insufficient to run LC Q ToF. A total of 87 proteins were found in cocoa leaf sample, of which, 85 proteins were similar to cocoa and two proteins were similar to forest coconut. From the above, it can be concluded that the genotypes in S5/S6 can be crossed to get highly heterotic hybrids. For extraction of protein from cocoa flowers, fine tuning of the available methods under ideal laboratory conditions must be employed. Molecular basis of self-incompatibility has to be studied in detail.
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Characteization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Vikram, H C; KAU; Mini Raj, N
    Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) is an introduced crop to India. There exists tremendous variability in the nutmeg population in Kerala, which is the major nutmeg growing state in the country. Assessment of the existing variability is a prerequisite for taking up successful crop improvement programmes, which is very much limited in this tree spice. In this context, the present study entitled “Characterization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions” was taken up exclusively with the specific objectives to characterize nutmeg accessions based on morphological, biochemical and molecular parameters so as to scale the variability in a multidimensional way. Select fifty nutmeg accessions from a core germplasm collected and maintained in a private plantation in the Chalakudy river basin, belonging to age of fifteen years, formed the material for the study. Among the select fifty accessions, forty two were females, four monoecious and four males. In the morphological characterization, 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative characters were recorded from two trees per accession. Biochemical characterization was done in the select seventeen distinct accessions. GC-MS profiling was done in kernel and mace oils. Biochemical constituents of fresh pericarp were estimated. Isozyme profiling was done for peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes. The molecular characterization was attempted with 21 RAPD and 12 ISSR primers after screening. A key for identification of an elite nutmeg tree was developed. A descriptor for nutmeg with a set of 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative parameters and descriptor states for each of these characters was developed as the first step. This is the first study of its kind to develop a minimal descriptor for nutmeg. The descriptor developed from the present study was simultaneously utilised for morphological characterization and evaluation of the accessions. Wide variability was noticed among the accessions for 47 out of 51 qualitative characters. Four characters viz., leaf margin, fruit pubescence, grooves on nut and nature of fruit dehiscence were noted as non variable characters and hence, these were not included for further analysis. Based on the qualitative characters, accessions were classified into 11 clusters at 66 per cent similarity level. Accessions differed significantly for all the quantitative characters except shelling percentage. Performance evaluation of the accessions brought out the superiority of accession 8, 9 and 22 for yield. The accessions showed high GCV, PCV, h2 and genetic gain for most of the characters. Number of fruits per tree, fruit set percentage, number of fruits per m2, fresh and dry weight of mace, mace volume as well ratio of nut to mace exhibited high genetic gain. Hence, selection programme based on these characters will be very effective in improving the base populations. Based on Mahalanobis D2 analysis, accessions were grouped into 10 clusters. Wide range of variation was observed in contents of volatile oil, oleoresin and fixed oil of kernel and mace. Based on these constituents accessions were grouped into 26 clusters, which indicated their distinct quality. Based on the results of the morphological characterization, seventeen distinct accessions were selected for further biochemical and molecular analysis. GC-MS analysis of kernel and mace oils exhibited 20 and 24 constituents respectively. Volatile oil composition exhibited wide variability for the major constituents viz., myristicin, elemicin, safrole and sabinene apart from the presence of some unique compounds. Grouping of the accessions was done based on the per cent content of these important compounds. Two accessions recorded high contents of both myristicin and elemicin whereas another two accessions were in the complimentary; belonging to low myristicin group. High sabinene combined with low myristicin was the intrinsic quality attribute of one of the accessions. Change, as well as addition/deletion of specific constituents was also noticed in the volatile oils after storage for one year. Accessions exhibited wide range of variation in the biochemical constituents of pericarp, a valuable information for the value addition of pericarp. Total phenol and tannins exhibited high variation. The accessions were ranked based on the content of biochemical constituents. Isozyme profiling using peroxidase enzyme produced four bands and that based on polyphenol oxidase exhibited three bands. Molecular markers could assess the variability among the accessions. The selected 21 RAPD primers produced a total of 164 amplicons of which 63.21 per cent were polymorphic. The 12 ISSR primers selected produced a total of 87 amplicons of which 69.44 per cent were polymorphic. Few unique bands were detected for specific characters. Inter cluster association of each of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns was worked out. The results indicated the differences as well as similarities of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns. Finally, key quantitative characters were identified based on their direct and indirect effect on yield as also economic importance. The statistical key thus developed using 13 key quantitative characters will serve as a preliminary tool for identification of an elite nutmeg tree.
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Incorporation of tomato leaf curl virus (Tolcv) resistance in bacterial wilt resistant tomato.
    (Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2011) Koteswararao, Yadav; KAU; Sadhankumar, P G
    Investigations on “Incorporation of Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (ToLCV) resistance in bacterial wilt resistant tomato” were undertaken in the Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during the period from January, 2009 to May, 2011. Eighty tomato genotypes collected from India and abroad were screened for ToLCV resistance of which 26 were found to be highly resistant under natural screening. Of these, 20 genotypes (LE-474, LE-635, LE-640, LE-658, LE-666, LE-667, Arka Ananya, IIHR-2195, IIHR-2196, IIHR-2197, IIHR-2198, IIHR-2202, IIHR-2747, TLBRH-1, TLBRH-6, Cherry Tomato, H-24, H-86, Hawaii-7998 and Rani) were highly resistant to ToLCV under both graft transmission and whitefly transmission there by confirming their resistance to ToLCV. Seventy six tomato genotypes were screened for bacterial wilt resistance in bacterial wilt sick plot. Spot planting with known suscept Pusa Ruby was done to confirm the presence of virulent bacteria in the field. Anagha, Sakthi, Mukthi, LE-1-2, LE-626 and LE-474 were resistant to bacterial wilt. Three additional sources of resistance were identified viz., LE-628, LE-640 and LE-649. Five bacterial wilt resistant genotypes (Anagha, Sakthi, Mukthi, LE-1-2 and LE-626) were crossed with seven ToLCV resistant genotypes (IIHR-2195, IIHR-2196, H-24, H-86, Hawaii-7998, LE-474 and LE-640) in a line x tester fashion. Thirty five F1 hybrids developed were screened for both ToLCV and bacterial wilt resistance. Thirty hybrids were highly resistant to tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) among the 35 hybrids. Sixteen F1 hybrids were resistant to bacterial wilt. There were 15 F1 hybrids which were resistant to both ToLCV and bacterial wilt. Line x tester analysis was performed to derive information on general combining ability and specific combining ability effects, gene action and heterosis. Good general combiners for different characters were identified. Among the F1 hybrids Anagha x LE-640 was the earliest to flower and earliest to harvest. Sakthi x LE-640 (1.4 kg/plant) gave the maximum yield among the hybrids and parents followed by Mukthi x H-86 (1.1 kg/plant) and LE-1-2 x Hawaii-7998 (1.06 kg/plant). Maximum number of fruits were produced by LE-1-2 x Hawaii-7998 (39.67 fruits/plant). The maximum sized fruits were produced by Anagha x IIHR-2195 (55.93 g) followed by Sakthi x LE-640 (55.78 g) and Sakthi x IIHR-2196 (55.09 g). F2 segregants of 35 crosses were screened for combined resistance to bacterial wilt and ToLCV. Thirty F2 segregants were resistant to both bacterial wilt and ToLCV. Mukthi x IIHR-2195-F2-47 (1.7 kg/plant) and Mukthi x IIHR-2195- F2-34 (1.5 kg/plant) were the highest yielders among the 30 segregants. Segregation pattern in F1, F2, B1 and B2 of the cross combination Pusa Ruby x IIHR-2195 revealed that the resistance to ToLCV in IIHR-2195 is controlled by a single dominant gene.
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Determinants of nutritional status and lifestyle diseases among middle aged working women
    (Department of Community Science, College of Horticulture, Vellayani, 2019) Siji, M S; KAU; Aneena, E R
    Middle age is a phase of transition from young age to old age. Along with the psycho-physiological transitions of midlife, many chronic diseases like hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, cardiovascular problems, obesity etc. increase when women reach their middle age. The hectic schedule of balancing home, work, along with balancing social and personal needs could lead middle aged working women to ignore their health until their health problems become chronic or fatal. The present investigation entitled “Determinants of nutritional status and lifestyle diseases among middle aged working women” was undertaken to assess the nutritional status, work stress, standard of living and prevalence of life style diseases among middle-aged working women. Risk factor index, correlates and prediction formulae for the determinants of nutritional disorders and lifestyle diseases were also derived. The study was conducted among a total of 360 middle aged (45-55 years) working women of Thiruvananthapuram district. Forty middle aged working women were selected from each of the nine divisions of occupation as envisaged in the National Classification of Occupation (NCO, 2004). The nine occupational division includes (D1)-senior officials, (D2)-professionals, (D3)-technicians, (D4)-clerks, (D5)-service workers, (D6)-agriculture & fishery workers, (D7)-craft workers, (D8)-machine operators and (D9)-construction workers. The In depth investigations were conducted among 30 per cent of the respondents (n=108) identified to be the most vulnerable. The socio-economic status assessment showed that nuclear family system was predominant. High variability in educational status, socio-economic status and housing conditions were observed among the occupational categories. Using the baseline data, a modified Standard of Living Index (MSLI) was derived. MSLI is based on 4 dimensions viz. Individual characteristics (2 items), housing conditions (8 items), consumer durables (7 items) and social variables (2 items) with a total of 19 items. Scores were assigned for each variable in ascending order. Based on these scores, respondents were classified into upper, middle and lower standard of living. MSLI assessment revealed that more than 75 per cent of the respondents in D1, D2, D3, D4 and D8 had medium to high SLI. While a major proportion of respondents from D5, D6, D7 & D9 belonged to low SLI. Nutritional status assessment revealed higher prevalence of abdominal obesity (95.6 per cent), elevated body mass index (65.6 per cent), waist - hip ratio (WHR) (81.7 per cent) and body fat percent (96.9 per cent) among middle aged women irrespective of the occupational class difference. An assessment of household stress, work stress and psychological distress was studied, by standardising the stress scale. The significant item-total correlation and high Cronbach’s alpha confirms the validity and reliability of the developed stress index (SI). The application of the stress index revealed moderate to high stress prevalence among the major proportion of the respondents. Statistical analysis confirmed the inter-dependence of stress and occupational divisions. Physical activity (PA) was assessed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, version 2 (WHO, 2013). Metabolic equivalent (MET) scores were used to classify the physical activity of the respondents. It was observed that more than 60 per cent of the respondents from all the occupation divisions were inactive or less active. An exception was noted in D9 where 60 per cent of construction workers were classified as active. Physical activity and occupational divisions were statistically dependent on each other. The physical work capacity of the respondents revealed that majority of the middle aged women had below average work capacity (45%). The vital capacity of the respondents were measured using the peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) and found that majority of the respondents had moderate (57%) to poor (36%) lung capacity. Medical camps were organized to assess the occurrence and prevalence of lifestyle diseases. Health problems related to neurological, musculo-skeletal, gastro-intestinal and urological complaints were reported by majority of the respondents. Prevalence of lifestyle diseases viz. diabetes, hypertension and hypercholesterolemia was 73 per cent and prevalence of combination of two of the lifestyle diseases was 31 per cent. More than half of the study population had raised fasting blood sugar (55.6%), total cholesterol (76.9%), systolic blood pressure (54%) and diastolic blood pressure (72.2%). Anemia was observed in 21 per cent and calcium deficiency in 15 per cent of the sample. More than 60 per cent of the respondents were osteopenic indicating low bone mineral density and increased risk of fractures. More than 40 per cent of the respondents attained menopause with almost 50 per cent experiencing moderate menopausal symptoms. Prevalence of lifestyle diseases was statistically independent of the occupational status and SLI of the respondents. Majority of the respondents were aware of their lifestyle diseases and were also undergoing regular treatments. Inadequacy in the intake of quality foods mainly pulses, milk, roots and tubers, leafy vegetables, other vegetables and fruits were noticed among all the occupational divisions. A diet quality index (DQI) was formulated in the study aiming at the qualitative assessment of middle aged women’s diet and to assess dietary risk factors of lifestyle diseases using the Indian dietary guidelines and recommendations of international dietary indices. Scores were assigned to the four dimensions included in the DQI viz. dietary adequacy variables (45 scores), dietary moderation variables (15 scores), healthy dietary practices (20 scores) and dietary diversity variables (20 scores) with a maximum score of 100. Based on the DQI scores, respondents were categorized to very poor, poor, average, good and excellent diet quality. More than half of the middle aged women from all occupation divisions had an average DQI. DQI was dependent on occupational status. Higher DQI scores showed significant negative correlation with waist circumference and prevalence of lifestyle diseases. Lifestyle disease incidence was positively correlated with elevated waist circumference and stress index. Significant negative correlation was observed between lifestyle disease prevalence and physical activity. All anthropometric variables were highly correlated with each other. As revealed by the multinomial logistics regression analysis, the elevated WC, WHR, lack of PA and low DQI are the significant determinants contributing to the occurrence of one of the lifestyle diseases. The odds percentages were 48%, 99%, 50% and 71% respectively. The elevated BMI, WC and WHR had significantly higher probability for further encountering another lifestyle disease as per the odds percentage were 52%, 47.8% and 61.5% respectively. The significant predictors leading to the final stage of developing a high susceptibility towards all the three lifestyle diseases as per the odds percentage were elevated WC (48%), body fat per cent (53%), WHR (99%) and high SLI (49%). Principal Component Analysis was carried out for generating a minimum data set of risk factors contributing to nutritional disorders and lifestyle diseases. The five significant risk factor dimensions identified in the present study were nutritional anthropometry, raised blood pressure, physical inactivity factors, adiposity factors and psychological & diet quality factors with total of 12 risk factor items/variables. Accordingly a risk factor scale was developed. The application of the developed risk factor scale among the respondents revealed that 39 per cent had moderate risk, 31 per cent had low risk and 30 per cent had high risk for developing lifestyle diseases and nutritional disorders. Construction workers showed the highest risk factor index and machine operators showed least risk factor index for lifestyle diseases. The study gave an insight to the nutrition transition that middle aged working women are undergoing. Alarmingly high prevalence of overweight and obesity coupled with a high burden of life style diseases was observed in the study. Intervention strategies for early detection and modification of risk factors identified in the study viz. unhealthy diet, sedentary life style, household as well as work life stress, lack of regular physical activity, poor fruit and vegetable consumption, abdominal or central obesity and high body fat should be advocated both at community and household level. Adoption of cost-effective measures for the prevention and control of life style diseases such as dietary modification, regular physical activity and life style changes should be encouraged throughout women’s lives to promote healthy midlife and ageing. The tools and indices developed in the study will be useful for various epidemiological studies and can be applied to the general population. These tools will provide an updated measure to evaluate the socio-economic, health and nutritional status of middle aged women. The study strongly recommend to consider middle aged women as vulnerable population and requires policy attention and age specific nutritional intervention programmes.
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    ThesisItemOpen Access
    Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics
    (Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Shajma Nafeesa, Basheer; KAU; Sabina George, T
    The present study entitled ‘Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics was conducted in the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2012-2015, with an objective to collect and evaluate the genotypes of Tagetes spp. for growth, yield of fresh flowers and floral attributes in two planting seasons, ie, October and May planting and to select promising genotypes for loose flower production and for landscaping. The experimental material consisted of twenty five genotypes of Tagetes erecta and five genoytpes of Tagetes patula. These were evaluated in the field in a randomized block design with three replications. Significant differences were observed among the genotypes for plant growth characters, foliage characters, flowering and yield characters and flower characters in both planting seasons. In both October and May plantings, TEG 5 and TEG 6 maintained greater plant height and the lowest plant height were found to be in TPG 17 and TPG 18. The maximum plant spread was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TPG 21 in May planting. The highest number of primary branches per plant was recorded in TEG 6 followed by TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 16 followed by TEG 5 and TEG 8 in May planting. The highest number of secondary branches was recorded by TEG 14 in October planting and by TPG 21 in May planting. Among flowering and yield characters, in October planting, the lowest number of days to flowering was recorded in Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 19, TPG 18 and TPG 21 (33.33 days) and the lowest number of days to flower opening in TPG 21 and TPG 17 (45.33 days). In May planting, the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 recorded the lowest number of days to flower initiation (49.00) and flower opening (68.33). TEG 29 recorded the longest flowering duration in both October and May planting. The maximum number of flowers per plant and flower yield per plant was observed in TEG 16 in October planting. In May planting, TPG 18 followed by TEG 16 recorded the maximum number of flowers. The genotype TEG 16 also recorded the highest flower yield per plant in May planting and the highest number of viable seeds per plant in both the seasons. TEG 11 recorded higher values for fresh weight of flower in both the seasons of investigation. In October planting and May planting, the highest value for petal meal per kg of fresh flowers was recorded in TEG 29 and the maximum petal meal per ha was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 29 in May planting. The highest total carotenoid content was recorded by TEG 3 followed by TEG 2 in both the seasons. Among the flower characters, TEG 5 the highest number of ligulate floret whorls and TEG 11 recorded the highest value for length of floret, flower diameter, girth of floral receptacle in both the seasons. Significantly higher flower stalk length was observed for TEG 3 and the longest vase life was recorded by TEG 7 in both the seasons of investigation. Genetic variability studies showed that genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was higher than phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) for all the characters. High GCV and PCV and high heritability was observed for all the characters studied. Correlation studies revealed a highly significant positive correlation of flower yield with number of flowers per plant, plant spread, fresh weight of flowers, length of floret, crop duration and number of secondary branches per plant. Path analysis studies showed that fresh weight of flowers had the highest direct positive effect on flower yield per plant followed by number of flowers per plant and plant height. Cluster analysis based on D2 values divided the thirty genotypes of marigold into six clusters with Cluster V recording the maximum number of genotypes and Cluster I, the minimum number of genotypes.Seasonal evaluation of the genotypes showed that May planting was found to be better than October planting in terms of plant growth characters, flower yield and flower characteristics. Earlier initiation of flowering was however observed in October planting in all the genotypes. The present study revealed that, the Tagetes erecta genotypes TEG 5, TEG 29, TEG 25, TEG 30, TEG 22, TEG 11 and TEG 7 may be suitable for commercial loose flower production. The genotype TEG 16 with semiupright habit may be suited for plant compactness and flower production. The genotypes TEG 3 and TEG 2, with higher carotenoid content may be suitable for pigment extraction. The Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 21 and TPG 18 with dwarf spreading plant habit and the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 with semiupright plant habit may be suitable as flowering ground covers in landscaping. The wide range of genetic variability available in marigold genotypes can be utilized for further crop improvement programmes through direct selection and hybridization.