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Open Access
Production dynamics of ginger (zingiber officinale R.) under varying levels of shade, nutrients and triazole
(Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Ajith Kumar, K; KAU; Jayachandran, B K
The experiments were conducted at the Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram, during 1996-97 and 1997-98 to study the production dynamics of ginger under varying levels of shade, nutrients and triazole. The specific objectives were to study the production potential of ginger under open and different shade levels, to standardise optimum dose of nutrients and mulch for ginger intercropped in coconut garden and to evaluate the efficacy of triazole in the improvement of yield and other desirable characters. The effect of shade on growth and yield contributing parameters viz., tiller number, leaf number, leaf area, leaf dry weight, root spread, root volume, rhizome spread, rhizome thickness, number of rhizomes, leaf thickness, stomatal frequency, DMP and LAI under 20 and 40 per cent shade levels exhibited significant superiority in pot culture study. In pot culture study: maximum fresh ginger yield of 450.0 and 396.3 g plant" were resulted from plants kept under 20 and 40 per cent shade levels respectively. This was 27.4 and 12.2 per cent higher compared to open- condition. The dry ginger yield of 94.5 and 89.2 g plant" were obtained from plants kept under 20 and 40 per cent shade levels respectively. This was 27.8 and 20.7 per cent higher compared to open condition. However, the dry ginger yield obtained from 60 and 80 per cent shade levels were significantly lower compared to open. The shade levels 20 and 40 per cent gave the highest shoot dry weight of 48.9 and 53.6 g plant" respectively. Volatile oil content showed an increasing trend with increasing levels of shade in pot culture study. Maximum NVEE was recorded under 20 and 40 per cent shade levels. Highest starch content was obtained from 20 per cent shade level. Crude fibre gradually reduced with increase in shade levels. The field trial on nutrient requirement of ginger as intercrop in coconut garden revealed that, NPK application at higher levels increased plant height, tillering, leaf number, leaf area, DMP and chlorophyll content. Physiological parameters like, NAR, CGR and RGR were promoted by higher rates of nitrogen application. The results revealed that, N: P, N : K and P : K ratios of l.5 : 1, l.5 : 1 and 1 : 1 respectively, were ideal to get maximum fresh ginger yield. Application of 150 kg N, 100 kg P20S and 100 kg K20 ha-l gave maximum net profit ofRs. 96605/- and Rs. 99227/- during first and second year respectively. The net profit when the existing recommendation of 75 kg N, 50 kg P20S and 50 kg K20 ha-l was Rs. 54960/- and Rs. 54730/- during first and second year respectively. Hence the study suggests that the existing recommendation (75 kg N, 50 kg P20S and 50 kg K20 ha") has to be doubled (150 kg N, 100 kg P20S and 100 kg K20 ha-l) for increasing the productivity of ginger intercropped in coconut garden. Increased rate of fertilizer application did not influence the quality of the produce. Plant uptake of NPK increased with higher levels of fertilizer application. The field experiment on mulch requirement of ginger intercropped in coconut garden showed that the rhizome yield from plots mulched with 30.0, 22.5 and 1 =r. 0 t ha' were on par. Therefore the mulch requirement of ginger intercropped in coconut garden can be reduced from 30 t ha-l to 15.0 t ha-I Application of triazole did not exhibit any beneficial effect on yield and quality of ginger.
Open Access
Improvement of Anthurium andreanum Lind. in Vitro
(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Mini Balachandran; KAU; Ramachandran Nair, S
For refining and establishing micropropagation system for Anthurium andreanum cv. Dragon's Tongue, studies were carried out, to solve many of the problems faced in the micropropagation of the variety, such as, improper foliage development, prolonged period for callus induction and multiplication. Investigations were conducted also to explore alternative explants for micropropagation, induction of somatic embryogenesis and development of artificial seeds, crop improvement through induction of somaclonal variation and radiation breeding in vitro. The study was carried out during 1995-98 at the Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, Kerala Horticulture Development Programme (R & D), Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara. Surface disinfestation with 70 per cent ethyl alcohol wipe followed by treatment with 0.1 per cent HgCl2 for eight minutes recorded maximum survival (99.74%) of cultures in the case of leaf explants. For spadix explants, ethyl alcohol wipe (70%) + emisan (0.1 %) dip for three minutes followed by HgCI2 (0.1 %) for 10 minutes recorded maximum survival (87.56%) of the cultures. , Among the different explants tried (in vivo and in vitro derived explants) callus induction was maximum in the case of in vivo leaf explants. Callus was initiated (86.50%) within 51 days compared to 90 days reported earlier, when cultured In darkness on to the culture media, Nitsch-white (NW) + kinetin 0.5mgl-1 + 2.4-0 0.3 rngl-1 + sucrose 20 gl-1+ glucose 10 gl-1 + agar 6.0 gl-1. Spadix explants and in vitro derived explants (leaves, nodes, petiole and roots) showed good response to callus induction treatments. Among the in vitro derived explants, root explants recorded the maximum callus multiplication. Callus induction from spadix explants was better (59.85%) in half strength MS basal medium supplemented with 2,4-0 0.3 mgl-1 + kinetin 0.5 mgl-1 +Sucrose 30 gl-1 + agar 6 gl-1. Maximum shoot regeneration (92%) was observed after 46 days in Nitsch media supplemented with BAP 0.5 mgl-1 in the case of leaf callus. In the case of callus derived from spadix explants, half strength MS media supplemented with BAP 2.0 mgl-1 + kinetin 2.0 mgl-1 recorded maximum response (71.42). Multiplication rate (22 per culture vessel) of the shoots and growth and development of the leaves and shoots were better in conical flasks (200ml size). For quicker establishment of the plantlets, mud pots gave the best results (85.33%). Incorporation of vesicular -arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) Glomus so., into the potting mix improved the growth of the plantlets ex vitro. Among the explants tried for somatic embryogenesis, in vitro derived leaves (53%) and petiole (18.90%) and immature seeds (8.33%) showed positive response. Induction of somatic embryoids was observed in the media, Nitsch-White (NW) supplemented with 2,4-0 1.5 mgl-1 + kinetin 0.15 mgl-1 + sucrose 20 gl-1 + glucose 10 gl-1 + glutamine 200 mgl-1 + agar 6 gl-1 in explants derived from in vitro leaves and petiole. For immature seeds, response was observed in Nitsch media supplemented with 2,4-02.0 mgl-1 + kinetin 0.3 mgl-1 + sucrose 20 gl-1 + glucose10 gl-1 + glutamine 200 mgl-1. Germination of the somatic embryoids was highest in half strength MS media supplemented with BAP 0.1 mgl-1 + glutamine 200 mgl-1 . Viability of the somatic embryoids was observed to be very low (5-10 days). Encapsulation of somatic embryoids was achieved with calcium chloride at 50 ~M and sodium alginate at 3 per cent level • "j After encapsulation, somatic embryoids can be stored up to 20 days without much loss in capacity for germination (15.50%). Germination per cent of encapsulated somatic embryos was improved (39%) after a low temperature storage (4 0C) for 20 days. Rudimentary leaves were observed in plantlets regenerated from ninth and tenth subculture. The colour of the leaves in such plantlets was observed to be pale green. After transplanting also, the plants exhibited poor leaf growth. In such plants the leaf area remained smaller than other plants. But, chlorophyll development was normal. For radiation breeding using y-rays, the irradiation doses above 150 Gy were found to be lethal to callus as well as for shoot tips. Maximum response in terms of plant height, plant spread and leaf area was recorded at lower dose of 50 Gy. Most significant variation observed in in vitro regenerated plantlets compared to mother plants was the reduction in leaf area of mutants regenerated from explants irradiated with 150 Gy. Height of the plant was also less at higher doses of ƛ-irradiation. The plants obtained from the trial on induction of somaclonal variation and radiation breeding were screened for possible mutants and somacional variants using morphological characters, biochemical markers and cytological technique. Morphological characters were recorded for observing possible variability, at periodical intervals after transplanting. Dwarf mutants were observed at higher doses of y-irradiation. The biochemical studies using isozymes revealed no difference among the plants regenerated from different subcultures and different doses of irradiation. But, difference was observed between the non-irradiated and the irradiated plants for the number of bands produced. Peroxidase isoenzyme was found to be the most stable and was expressed in plants regenerated from different subcultures as well as those from irradiated cultures. Five bands were resolved in the case of plants from the repeated subculturing and two bands were resolved in the case of those regenerated from irradiated cultures. Cytological study showed no alteration in the somatic chromosome number, which remained uniform at 2n=30+2B, in all the plants regenerated from the different subcultures and the irradiated cultures.
Open Access
Breeding for resistance to mosaic viruses in pumpkin (Cusurbita moschata Poir)
(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Jessy, M Kuriakose; KAU; George, T E
Pumpkin Mosaic Virus (PMV) and Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus (YVMV) are the most devastating diseases of pumpkin in Kerala and the only way to manage this is to use virus resistant varieties. Investigations were carried out at Sugarcane Research Station, Thiruvalla, Kerala Agricultural University to identify source(s) of resistance to PMV and YVMV, to study the genetics and biochemical mechanism of mosaic virus resistance and to identify desirable segregants possessing combined resistance to PMV and YVMV. Six species of Cucurbita (103 genotypes) were used for the study. Only one accession Nigerian Local (NL), introduced from Cornell University possessed high level of resistance to both the virus. The mosaic resistance confirmation studies namely, back inoculation, grafting and multi-environment study clearly established that the reaction in NL can be considered as stable. Neither the inoculated leaves nor the uninoculated subsequent leaves of the susceptible variety Ambili showed symptoms when back inoculated with sap from NL in case of PMV. Through back inoculation, viruses could not be isolated from this genotype thereby proving that the resistance is not symptomless carrier type of tolerance. NL did not develop any disease symptom even after grafting on the YVMV infected symptomatic root stock. The environmental fluctuations also did not influence the resistance expression of NL against both PMV and YVMV. Resistance to PMV was evaluated in five parents and their F1, F2 and backcross generations of four cross combinations namely, Amb x NL, AC x NL and Co1 x NL. On an average 96.25 per cent plants in the F1 showed susceptibility. The gene for susceptibility to PMV had only 95 percent penetrance in PV x NL. Under different genetic background the role of gene modifiers in the disease susceptibility expression of the major gene in AC x NL can not be ruled out. The F2 segregation ratio in all the crosses was in agreement with the Mendelian genetic ratio of 3:1 (susceptible : resistant). The test cross (F1 back crossed to NL) confirmed this with a genetic ratio of 1:1 (resistant : susceptible) in all the four crosses studied. The inheritance studies in six generations of all the four cross combinations clearly revealed that the resistance to PMV in pumpkin is controlled basically by a single recessive gene. The role of gene modifiers affecting the expression of this major gene is to be investigated further. Reaction to YVMV in the six generations i.e., P1, P2, F1, F2, B1 and B2 of the four cross combinations under study revealed that the resistance is controlled by a single dominant gene. In the F1 on an average out of 40 plants only 32 were resistant. Hence the influence of gene modifiers in the resistant expression of this dominant gene for resistance to YVMV in heterozygous conditions can not be ruled out and is to be further analysed. The reciprocal crosses also behaved in a similar fashion. Out of 300 F2 plants in each cross, a mean number of 220 plants were resistant and 80 susceptible, fitting in a 3 : 1 ratio indicating the monogenic dominance of resistance. When F1 was back crossed to the susceptible parent, the segregation of resistance and susceptibility was in equal proportion i.e., out of a mean number of 100 B1 plants inoculated 48 were resistant. This very well fitted into 1 : 1 ratio of resistance : susceptibility. So resistance to YVMV is governed basically by a dominant gene, slightly influenced by gene modifiers. Although NL is a good source of resistance to both the viruses under study, the seed germination was as low as 19 per cent. Through seed coat removal, 62 per cent seed germination (43%increase) was noted in NL. The isozyme pattern of peroxidase and esterase enzymes in susceptible and resistant genotype of pumpkin as well as their F1 hybrids was analysed, before inoculation and after inoculation of both viruses. The resistant and susceptible genotypes showed clear cut differences in their peroxidase profile. The susceptible parents had three bands namely, PRX1, PRX3 and PRX6, while the resistant parent NL expressed only one isoform-PRX1 (0.083) before virus inoculation. The hybrid PV x NL exhibited six bands with three additional bands, PRX2, PRX3 and PRX5. The additional band PRX2 can be attributed to the earliness in growth and development of this hybrid. After inoculation of PMV, the band PRX1 expressed before inoculation was not expressed in both the resistant and susceptible parents as well as in their F1 hybrids. In the resistant parent NL an additional band, PRX5 (Rm value 0.463) was noted. This particular isoform might be responsible for resistance to PMV in NL. After infection of YVMV, the resistant parent as well as the resistant F1 hybrids had the additional band PRX4 (Rm value 0.392). There were six bands of esterase in the susceptible parents and only three in the resistant before virus inoculation. The resistant parent after inoculation of PVM, exhibited three additional bands EST1 (0.368), EST4 (0.632) and EST5 (0.721). Consequent to YVMV infection, the additional band EST 4 (Rm value 0.632) observed in NL was thick and the specific activity of this particular isoform might also be responsible for the resistance mechanism. Consequent to virus infection, the total system of esterase was affected, while peroxidase was comparatively stable. The resistant expression of NL against PMV infection can be attributed to the expression of the additional band PRX5 (0.463) and the resistant mechanism against YVMV in NL as well as in the F1 hybrids can be due to the activity of the isoform PRX4 (0.392). Sequential inoculation with PMV followed by YVMV was carried out in 25 seedlings each in the F1, F2, B1 and B2 generations of the four cross combinations namely, Amb x NL, PV x NL, AC x NL, and Co1 x NL to identify plants with combined resistance to both the viruses. In the F1s, eight plants were identified as resistant to both the viruses i.e., one in Amb x NL, two in PV x NL, three in AC x NL and two in Co1 x NL. In the F2, B1 and B2 populations, there were 17, 9 and 37 seedlings respectively, resistant to both the viruses. All the 71 seedlings possessing combined resistance to PMV and YVMV were further evaluated in the field for their biometric and horticultural characters. The studies in general indicated earliness of F1s compared to F2s, B1s and B2s. On an average, the fruit yield in terms of number and weight of fruits in all the crosses was maximum for the F1 plants. In all the crosses, the plants belonging to the F1, F2, B1 and B2 generations produced fruits with external fruit colour as well as flesh colour of either the female parent or the male parent or with a blend of these two colours. Based on resistance to PMV and YVMV, fruit smoothness, non-incidence of other mosaic viruses and yield of fruits, eight most promising superior segregants from among the four cross combinations were selected for further improvement. They included four in Amb x NL, two from Co1 x NL and one each from PV x NL and AC x NL.
Open Access
Analysis of growth, flowering and quality in koduveli (Plumbago Spp.)
(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1999) Jalaja, S Menon; KAU; Prasannakumari Amma, S
Analysis of growth, flowering and quality in plumbago rosea and plumbago zeylanica were undertaken in the College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur during 1995 to 1998. Study analysed the variation in vegetive, physiological, biochemical, anatomical and reproductive characters of the two medicinally important specied of plumbago. The post harvest storage technique of P.rosea were also studied.
Open Access
Genetic improvement of bird pepper (Capsicum Frutescens L.) by selection
(Department Of Olericulture, College Of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Sheela K B; KAU; George, T E
Investigation on 'Genetic improvement of bird pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.) by selection' was undertaken at the Department of Olericulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, during 1993-97. The main objectives of the study were estimation of variability and genetic diversity, study of floral biology, improvement of the selected lines through single plant and mass selection methods, analysis of biochemical constituents and morphological and biochemical characterization of bird pepper. Eighty six accessions of bird pepper collected from different locations were characterized based on IBPGR descriptor list for Capsicum. Wide variability was observed for morphological and biometric characters. Twenty five selected accessions were further evaluated for two seasons for quantitative characters. Variability, heritability, genetic diversity and association of various characters was studied. e Accessions CF 5, CF 10, CF 19, CF 23, CF 36 and CF 103 having consistent high yield and better fruit size were advanced by single plant and mass selection for three generations. Single plant selection was more effective in improving fruit size and yield. Genetic gain was realised for fruit characters and yield under both the methods of selection. The peak period of anthesis and anther dehiscence in bird pepper was between 9 am to lOam. Stigma was receptive 24 hours before and after anthesis. Significant variation was observed among 25 selected accessions for ascorbic acid, capsaicin, oleoresin and carotenoid content. The highest content of ascorbic acid, capsaicin, oleoresin and carotenoids in mature fruits were registered in accessions CF 15 (77.6 mg 100 g-1), CF 5 (1.57%), CF 23 (14.25%) and CF 138 (0.5%) respectively. These constituents registered a significant increase with ripening. A comparison of C. frutescens and C. annuum accessions with respect to fatty acid, nucleic acid and protein content, enzyme activities and flavour components were made. Biochemical characterization of C. frutescens was done by studying the electrophoretic pattern of the enzyme peroxidase. Accession CF 19 with high yield (185.38 g per plant) and better fruit size (24.26 cm2) and CF 5 and CF 10 with high capsaicin content (1.57 and 1.41 % respectively) were identified for further improvement.
Open Access
Impact of organic sources of plant nutrients on yield and quality of brinjal
(Department Of Olericulture, College Of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Prasanna, K P; KAU; Rajan, S
An investigation on the "Impact of organic sources of plant nutrients on yield and quality of brinjal" was carried out at the College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara during 1993-1997. Results showed that yield attributes of brinjal like number of fruits, volume of fruits, yield per plant and yield per plot was maximum with highest level of poultry manure (155 Kg N ha-1) The crop duration as well as the number of harvests were significantly increased when poultry manure was applied at the highest level (155 kg N ha-1). Quality parameters like ascorbic acid and total soluble solids were maximum with the highest level of poultry manure. , The starch content as well as reducing sugar content of fruits were maximum with higher level of FYM and poultry manure while all the organic treatments were at par with regard to total sugars. Moisture content of fruits increased with increasing levels of N. The appearance, flavour, texture and taste of cooked fruits were superior from treatment involving lower level of poultry manure while the colour preference was for the fruits from treatments having inorganic fertilizers alone at lower level. Maximum per cent of unmarketable fruits after five days and seven days of storage was obtained from the plants supplied with inorganic fertilizers alone and minimum in plants given with organic manures alone. Seed characters like number of seeds per fruit, weight of seeds per fruit, seed yield per plant and germination per cent of seeds were maximum in treatments having higher level of poultry manure (155 kg N ha-1). Shoot and fruit borer attack was reduced with the application of FYM alone, while incidence of epilachna beetle was reduced with the application of FYM or poultry manure alone. Physical as well as chemical properties of soil in terms of bulk density, organic carbon, total N, available P and K were improved with the continuous application of organic manures alone. Total uptake of N, P and K were maximum for the plants applied with higher level of poultry manure. Poultry manure at higher level showed average stability with regard to almost all yield contributing characters. Brinjal cultivation was found to be more remunerative with the application of poultry manure at higher level (155 kg N ha-1) .
Open Access
In vivo and in vitro screening of sida spp. for ephedrine content
(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Asha Sankar, M; KAU; Sreekandan Nair, G
The present investigations on in vivo and in vitro screening of Sida spp. For ephedrine content were carried out at the experiment field and Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory of the Department of plantation Crops and Spices and Biochemistry laboratory of All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural university, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, from September 1993 to march, 1998. The objectives of the study were to screen four commonly occurring Sida spp. Viz S. rhombifolia ssp. Retusa, S. acuta, S. rhombifolia ssp. Rhombifolia and S. cordifolia for ephedrine under in vivo and in vitro conditions and to explore the possibilities of upgrading the content of this alkaloid in vitro. Leaf, stem and root callus cultures of the four experimental species were established in vitro. Half strength MS medium supplemented with 2, 4-D 1 mg 1-1 was observed ideal for initiation and proliferation of calli. Kinetin at 0.3 and 1.0 mg 1-1 enhanced the callus inducing property of NAA. Among the species tested, S. acuta recorded significantly superior performance registering high callus index values of 319.60 and 311.19 respectively for leaf and stem cultures on half MS medium incorporated with 2, 4-D 1.0 mg 1-1 . The auxin synergist, phloroglucinol at levels of 100.0 mg 1-1 and 125.0 mg 1-1 was singularly effective in promoting callusing in Sida spp. Incubating leaf and stem cultures under illuminated conditions at 27 + 10C was significantly superior to incubation in dark or at 10-110C. Root explants were inferior to leaf and stem explants in inducing and proliferating calli. Successful regeneration of roots from leaf and stem calli of the experiment species was achieved with NAA, 1.0 mg 1- . Stimulatory effects of the growth factor combination, NAA and kinetin at 1.0 mg 1-1 and 0.3 mg 1-1 were reflected in number of roots regenerated. The promotive effects of 2 ip in root regeneration were more evident in stem cultures. NAA and kinetin at 0.5 mg 1-1 and 1.0 mg 1-1 respectively initiated shoots in leaf (20.10 per cent) and stem (26.93 per cent) callus cultures. Substituting sucrose with maltose in proportions of 1:2 in half strength MS media fortified with NAA and kinetin each at 1.0 mg 1-1 initiated embryoids in S. rhombifolia spp rhombifolia and S. cordifolia. Half MS media supplemented with NAA and kinetin, each at 1.0 mg 1-1 was standardised as the production medium which recorded positive response in leaf calli of S. cordifolia with respect to synthesis of ephedrine in qualitative and chromatographic tests. Butanol – glacial acetic acid – water at 4:1:1 was identified as the appropriate solvent system with ninhydrin as the localizing spray. Incorporation of yeast extract at 2.0g 1-1 and the precursor phenyl alanine at 50.0 mg 1-1 and 100.0 mg 1-1 elicited synthesis of ephedrine in leaf and stem calli of S. cordifolia. Methionine, another precursor failed to elicit synthesis of alkaloid in callus cultures of Sida spp. Addition of osmoregulant, polyethylene glycol at 2.0 per cent exerted a favourable influence on synthesis of ephedrine in leaf and stem calli of S. cordifolia. Definite presence of ephedrine in in vitro cultures of S. cordifolia was confirmed by eliciting the cultures with autoclaved mycelia of Pythium aphanidermatum at 500.0mg 1-1, 2.0g 1-1 and 5.0 g 1-1. Supplementing elicitation with precursor feeding was particularly beneficial to synthesis of ephedrine, wherein apart from S. cordifolia leaf callus cultures of S. rhombifolia ssp. Rhombifolia synthesised ephedrine. Immobilization or irradiation of calli failed to produce the alkaloid. Success in establishment of hairy root cultures from in vitro calli of S. cordifolia was dependant on the efficiency of the strain of Agrobacterium rhizogenes employed Strain A4 induced hairy roots in 50 per cent cultures each. In leaf and stem calli of S. cordifolia and 16.67 per cent cultures in root calli of the same species. Sucessful liquid suspensions of the experimental species could be established with a critical cell density of 2 g calli in 50 ml culture media, subcultured at an interval of 17 days with an inoculum ratio of 1:4. S. cordifolia was most effective with respect to proliferation in liquid suspensions registering an increase in packed cell volume of 200 per cent and 150 per cent respectively in leaf and stem calli, at 17 days subculture. Estimation of content of ephedrine in positively responding in vitro systems revealed that elicitation coupled with precursor feeding produced highest content of 0.0208 per cent and 0.0107 per cent respectively in leaf and stem calli of S. cordifolia. Barring cultures fed with phenyl alanine, static cultures synthesized higher amounts of ephedrine as compared to suspensions. Total free amino acid content of alkaloid producing fresh calli exceeded that of unproductive fresh and aged calli while total phenol content registered low values in alkaloid producing calli. Studies on yield parameters of field grown Sida spp. Revealed that total yield per plant and mean root yield varied significantly with stages of harvest, the maximum values being obtained at harvest at 9 months after planting. However stages of harvest did not influence the content of crude extractables of the experimental species significantly. S. rhombifolia ssp. Retusa ranked superior with respect to total biological yield and shoot yield per plant. Leaf extracts of S. cordifolia recorded comparatively higher content of ephedrine (0.0089) when harvested at 7 months after planting.

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