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Open Access
Physico-chemical characterization of gum-oleoresin from Ailanthus triphysa(Dennst.) Alston and effect of ethephon on gum-oleoresin yield
(Department of Forest Management and Utilisation, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2020) Latha, K J; KAU; Vidyasagaran, K
Gum and resins are natural bio-polymers having number of applications in pharmaceutical and food industries. Most of them are regarded as bio-degradable and safe because of their bio-compatibility, low cost, non-toxic, processing, environmental friendly and local availability. It is viable income source for thousands of forest dwellers. So the present study entitled “Physico-chemical characterization of gum-oleoresin from Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst) Alston and effect of ethephon on gum-oleoresin yield” was carried out at Arboretum, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara during the year 2018-2019. The main objective of the study was to assess the effect of different concentration of ethephon on gumoleoresin production in Ailanthus triphysa and also study the effect of diameter classes on production. The physical properties such as Solubility, pH, Viscosity, Moisture level, Color parameters, Ash content and chemical compounds were also determined as part of the study. A total of twenty-four trees were selected for conducting the study in which two girth classes (70-110cm, 111-150cm), four chemical treatments, each with three replications were taken. Data analysis was done on monthly intervals, showed significant difference in girth class on resin production in the months of June, July, August, November, December and April and in other months it found non-significant. It was observed that girth class G2 (111cm-150 cm) showed more yield compared to G1 (70-110). It was statistically found significant difference in gum-oleoresin yield due to different concentration of ethephon treatments. T4 (3.9%) ethephon treatment gave more yield (817.99gm) compared to other treatments, where T1 (control) gave very less yield (226.16gm). The exudation of gum-oleoresin was found to be more in post monsoon (55.06gm) followed by monsoon (43.78gm) and least during summer (27.01gm). Interaction between different ethephon treatment and season was found to be non-significant. 116 The physical and chemical properties of gum-oleoresin were studied and it indicated the gum-oleoresin was found to be strongly acidic, highly soluble in xylene and least in chloroform and in case of water, it absorbs water and swell. Moisture content was 5.17%, pH observed was 5.5, Colour of the gum-oleoresin observed was pale yellow to dark reddish brown and Viscosity observed was 2340 cps and 695 cps. Heavy metals like K ˃ Mg ˃ (Ca) ˃ (Ir) were detected. Chemical compounds were identified by using GC-MS. Total 18 compounds were identified from Acetone extract of gum-oleoresin in GC-MS, the major constituents of the chemical compound were beta.-caryophyllen followed by Tetradecane and 1,3,3-trimethyl-2-(2-methylcyclopropyl)-1-cyclohexene and 1- octadecene constitute least contribution, where as in methanol extracts, 16 compounds were identified, most abundant compound was Caryophyllene followed by 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid and bicyclo, the least abundant constituent was found to be 3-hexadecene. The correlation studies of bark thickness on production of gum-oleoresin were found to be significant with correlation coefficient 0.42. The climatic parameters like rainfall, relative humidity, temperature was found to be non-significant on production of gum-oleoresin.
Open Access
Provenance evaluation of acacia mangium wild for growth and wood traits
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 2015) Ringyao, Jajo; KAU; Santhoshkumar, A V
A provenance evaluation of A. mangium was conducted in 14 year old plantation at Livestock Research Station, Thiruvazhamkunnu, to understand the variation in growth and wood traits among the provenances. Ten provenances and one local seed source was used for the trial. The provenances had high survival percentage (77.44%), but did not differ significantly between provenances. Significant differences between provenances were found in tree height, while they were on par for DBH, volume, tree form and branching habit. The provenances of Kuranda, Arufi Village, Upper Aramia, Oriomo, Balimo and Binaturi were taller than the rest. Heritability of growth attributes was highest for height (63%). Morphometric traits of seeds were found to be significantly different between the provenances. Arufi Village provenance was found to be better than the other provenances for the traits. Seed weight and seed width were found to be strongly correlated with seedling height. Variation in germination energy, germination value and germination period were also significantly different between provenances. Lake Murray provenances showed the best performance in most of the parameters studied for germination. No significant differences between provenances were observed for germination capacity. Germination parameters are under moderate to high genetic control. Significant differences were noticed among the progenies of the provenances in height, while they did not differ in terms of collar girth and RGR. The provenances differed significantly in physical properties of wood, but not in mechanical properties. The provenances differed significantly for heartwood only at the base, while basic density was significantly different at all the height levels. Density was significantly and positively correlated with fiber length and slenderness, but negatively with fiber diameter and fiber wall thickness. The variations in fiber morphology between the provenances were also found to be significant. However, runkel ratio, flexibility and rigidity coefficient did not differ significantly between the provenances. Wood properties of the provenances were under strong genetic control. Based on the study, Tully-Mission Beach, Arufi Village, Kuranda, Upper Aramia, Lake Murray and Binaturi provenances can be recommended for growing under Kerala condition.
Open Access
Genetic diversity and population structure of two disjunct natural populations of syzygium travancoricum gamble.
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 2016) Mohammed Anees, P V; KAU; Santhoshkumar, A V
A study was conducted to observe the reproductive biology of the critically endangered species, Syzygium travancoricum Gamble, and to compare the variation between two geographically disjunct populations of the species situated at Kalasamala and Kattilappara. A series of investigations on the phenology, floral biology, morphology, flowering, and fruit set were carried out to study the reproductive biology. The two populations were compared to assess the variation in terms of population structure, morphology, wood anatomy and seed bank. The study revealed that, flowering occurred in S. travancoricum after a dry period and the fruiting occurred just before the onset of rain. The inflorescence of the species was axillary cymose with white, calyptrate flowers. Mass flowering was observed in S. travancoricum, but, when compared to other syzygium species, number of flowers produced per tree was less. The number of flowers setting to fruits was also poor. The natural regeneration from the seeds in the site too was poor. The seeds that germinated below the trees died in the seedling stage itself. The pollen viability studies revealed that the percentage of pollen germination was poor in S. travancoricum. The analysis of the seed germination assay indicated that seed germination was also poor in the species. The germinated seeds in lab too died at the seedling stage itself. The observations related to the population comparison revealed that, there were a lot of variations between the two populations in most of the characters. The biometric characters like tree height, GBH, and crown area showed significant differences between the two populations. In the case of leaf morphological characters such as leaf length and breadth, there were significant variation between the populations. The species associated with S. travancoricum was different in Kalasamala and Kattilappara. The relative density of the species was different in the two populations. The two populations showed significant variations in the case of wood anatomical characters. The seed banks too differed significantly between the two sites. The study concluded that the constraints such as, lesser flower production, poor fruit set, lower seed germination, poor seed viability could be the main causes of the rarity of S. travancoricum. The study further showed that the two populations have considerable differences between them, either environmental or genetic.
Open Access
Impact of invasive alien plants on understorey vegetation in Wayanad wildlife sanctuary
(Department of Natural Resource Management, Vellanikkara, 2018) Vishnu Chandran, M; KAU; Gopakumar, S
The present study “Impact of invasive alien plants (IAP) on understorey vegetation in Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary” was conducted in three vegetation types (Plantation, NF and Vayal) of WS II part of the sanctuary. The distribution characteristics of selected invasive alien species (IAPS) viz. Lantana camara L., Senna spectabilis (DC.) H.S. Irwin and R.C. Barneby and Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob and the impact of these invasive alien species on the regeneration of other plant communities were studied and compared. L. camara and C. odorata invaded all areas of the sanctuary except in the borders of Kurichiat and Sulthan bathery forest ranges. Lantana invasion was high in the Kurichiat RF (Reserve forest) and Rampur RF. Chromolaena invasion was found to be high in Mavinahalla and Kurichiat RF. In WS II part of the sanctuary, S. spectabilis was mainly distributed along the boundaries of Sulthan bathery and Muthanga ranges. In Muthanga, Senna invasion was extended up to “Kakkapadam” (2.5 km from Muthanga station). Among the IAPS, Chromolaena showed the highest density in all the three vegetation types, while the density of Senna was lowest in all the three vegetation types in WS II area. The density of Chromolaena in plantation and NF was 4943.52 ± 1079.07 and 4996.47 ± 1484.42 respectively. The density of Lantana in plantation and NF was 322.35 ± 88.18 and 85.42 ± 29.55 respectively. The density of Senna in plantation and NF was 63.5 ± 31.66 and 49.74 ± 23.93 respectively. Senna invasion was absent in vayal. Vayal showed highest density of Chromolaena (5810.59 ± 1262.43). Chromolaena had the highest percentage cover in both plantation and vayal. In NF, Lantana has (14.2 ± 2.8) the highest percentage cover. In all the three vegetation types, Chromolaena had the highest frequency and abundance. Among the seven weed category areas identified from the study area, highest MSR (Mean Species Richness) was seen in Control (weed free area), followed by L (Lantana invaded) and LC (Lantana and Chromolaena invaded)regions. The lowest MSR was obtained in S (Senna invaded) and CS (Chromolaena and Senna invaded) regions. All the three IAPS negatively influenced the native species richness. But no specific declining trend in species richness was observed during regression analysis. Results of regression analysis showed that, among the three IAPS, C. odorata had the biggest impact on the species richness of native species. It was followed by L. camara and S. spectabilis. Species richness of each growth form (herb & shrub) declined significantly with increasing Lantana, Chromolaena and Senna cover. In the current study, trees and climbers did not show any significant variation with increasing percentage covers of IAPS. For every 10% increase in percentage cover of C. odorata, two native herb species were observed being removed from the study area. At the same time only one shrub species was removed at every 10% increase in Chromolaena cover. For every 10% increase in Lantana cover, one native herb species was removed from the study area of the sanctuary. The species richness of shrubs also declined due to Lantana invasion. On plotting herb species richness against Senna percentage cover, only four herb species were obtained at 50% Senna cover. On further increase in percentage cover of Senna the herb species richness declined linearly and it was decreased to one at 100% Senna cover. It was also found during the study that, in plots where Senna and Chromolaena occured together, the species richness decreased from 86 to 4. Similarly in plots where Senna occured with Lantana and Chromolaena, species richness declined. This probably indicates a dominating interference of Senna on the recruitment of native species and could be because of the impacts of its larger size, big and wider canopy, competitive reproductive ability, allelopathy and a broad, deeper root system. Out of the 125 plant species identified from the sanctuary, only thirteen were observed from Senna invaded region. But during regression analysis it was found that, among the three IAPS Senna has the least impact on native species richness. This may be due to the fact that compared with Lantana and Chromolaena, the invasion of Senna is restricted to only a small portion of Wayanad WLS. But left uncontrolled Senna will soon become a major threat in Wayanad WLS in the near future.
Open Access
Taxonomic inventory and ecology of the rodents and insectivores of Silent Valley National Park,Kerala
(Department of Wildlife Sciences, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2016) Devipriya, K S; KAU; Nameer, P O
Rodents and insectivores accoimts for about 55% of the total mammalian diversity of the world and is tme with Kerala too. Very little studies have been done on the rodents and insectivores of Kerala and no previous studies have been done in Silent Valley NP. Thus, a study was conducted on the taxouomic inventory and ecology of the rodents and insectivores of Silent Valley National Park, which is one of the few remaining pristine rain forests of Kerala. The objectives was to study the species diversity, relative abundance and habitat preference of the rodents and insectivores • such as squirrels, mice, rats and shrews in Silent Valley National Park. Thestudy was carried out from September 2015 to April 2016. The method used for the study was using Sherman Traps technique. 50 Sherman traps were used in each of the four study locations. The study was carried out in two season viz. monsoon and summer and in two habitat types, evergreen forests and grasslands. Six species of rodents and one species of insectivore were recorded fiom Silent Valley National Paric. The rodents recorded were members of Muridae, Sciuridae and Hystricidae families. These includes Rattus yvroughtoni, Gohmda ellioti, Ratiifa indica, Funambulus tristriatiis, Funambulus sublineatus and Hystrix indica. The insectivore observed at SVNP was Suncus murinus of the family Soricidae. Though the rodent and insectivore abundance was more during the monsoon season, there was no significant difference. Similarly though the rodent abundance was more at the evergreen forests, this was also insignificant. Among the microhabitat parameters studied, the climber density has found to be significantly influencing the rodents at Silent Valley. Rattus wroughtoni was the most abundant species of rodent at Silent Valley. Among the rodents of Silent Valley, Ratufa indica is endemic to peninsular India while Funambulus trisiriatus, Funambuhis sublineatus are endemic to Western Ghats. The Funambulus sublineatus is a threatoied species of squirrel seen at Silent Valley and the lUCN Redlist category of this is Vulnerable.
Open Access
Feasibility of forest certification in Marayoor sandal division, Kerala
(Department of Wood Science, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2016) Toji Antony; KAU; Anoop, E V
The study titled “Feasibility of forest certification in Marayoor Sandal Division, Kerala” was carried out during 2015-2016. The main objectives were to find out the potential of implementing forest certification in Marayoor Sandal Division of Kerala by an assessment of the socio-economic status of the stakeholders. It was also intended to assess the management aspects of the Division, particularly to see whether they comply with the sustainable forest management principles and criteria of forest stewardship council (FSC). A pre-tested questionnaire was used to gather information on socio-economic characteristics of the stakeholders’ and for assessing the feasibility of forest certification. A total of 190 respondents from six stakeholders namely, forest dwellers, local community, casual labourers, forest officials, major bidders of Marayoor sandal and scientific community, were surveyed. The study revealed that, the sandal reserve acts as a major source of income to forest dwellers and casual labourers, which shows that, Marayoor Sandal Division plays a key role for meeting their livelihood. The sandal reserve provides a lot of benefits to stakeholders such as forest dwellers and local community. The major threats prevailed in the division were weed growth and grazing. There was no significant association between the socio-demographic variables and the perception of forest dwellerson benefits and threats,whereas for local community the relation showed almost the same pattern except for educational status and threat. The job-related risk was generally less in the sandal division from the perspectives of forest officials and casual labourers. The risk related to night-duty significantly affected the physical and mental capacity of forest officials, while the lack of safe guard measures was reported as a problem by casual labourers. Similarly, there was no significant difference in the job satisfaction with respect to the number of years of work experience. The management activities were satisfactory and the division complied with the government orders, guidelines, forest laws and policies. The strict adherence to the working plan prescriptions helped in the maintenance of the ecology of the division. The correlation between job satisfaction with implementation of management practices and ecological aspects was found to be negatively significant. This indicates that, when the implementation of rigid management practices in Marayoor Sandal Division is necessary on one hand, from the point of job satisfaction of the officials this is highly taxing given shortage of staff. Also, job dissatisfaction was because of the extra burden put on the under staffed workforce destined to ensure quality work. An analysis of the awareness level of a diverse network of experts comprising scientists, academicians, technical experts showed that, they were aware of certification and its importance. Also, the Marayoor Sandal Division was the only legal source of sandal to most of the ayurvedic industries, cosmetic industries and the Hindu temples in the state mainly managed by the Devaswom Boards. The study points to the feasibility of Forest Certification of Marayoor Sandal Division which can help in improving the overall management of the forest division. For this, region-specific P&C pertinent to Marayoor division needs to be formulated. For the implementation of forest certification in India, the National Working Plan Code (2014) should be amended with a view to enhance the practice of forest certification. For ensuring the quality of sustainable forest management particularly that of plantation management, the hard work of staff is needed to be recognised through award of cash incentives.
Open Access
Standardisation of preservation techniques of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) palm wood
(Department of Wood Science, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2017) Jeeshma, V J; KAU; Anoop, E V
Coconut (cocos nucifera L.) palm wood belongs to the class of perishable timbers which can be used as an alternative wood sources with affective preservation. Preservative treatment of coconut wood can enhance the service life of coconut service life of coconut wood. The objective of this study was to develop appropriate preservative methods to treat sawn coconut wood under the prevailing eco-climatic conditions in Kerala and to evaluate the effect of different factors on the treatability of coconut wood. Wood samples were treated with inorganic (Copper Chrome Boron- CCB and Borax Boric Acid-BBA) and organic preservatives (Cashew Nut Shell (CNS) liquid, need oil and turpentine). Diffusion and pressure treatment were deployed for inorganic preservation and organic preservatives were investigated only through diffusion treatment. Wood samples were air dried to a moisture content of about 50 per cent and total of 354 sampled belonging to high and medium density wood were treated with preservatives. Diffusion treatment of inorganic preservatives in high and medium density wood showed no significant difference in retention whereas significant difference was observed for penetration percentage. For pressure treatment, retention and penetration were significant in high density wood whereas medium density wood showed only significant retention. A proportionate relation existed between the solution concentrations and the two observations- overall retention and penetration percentage. Relation of diffusion period and retention in high density wood showed no uniform pattern while, an increasing trend was seen in medium density wood. Penetration depth followed an increasing pattern under increasing treatment duration in the two density classes. Among the two treatment methods, pressure treatment performed better than diffusion treatment. Absorption percentage of organic preservatives was non-significant among treatment factors (chemicals and duration), and their interaction in the two density classes. The study found that sawn coconut wood samples could be effectively treated with preservatives complying with the prescribed retention and penetration percentages as per the different standards and therefore, could be used as a potential substitute for conventional timbers.
Open Access
Impact of partcipatory forest management on the livelihoods of indigenous communities
(Department of Natural Resource Management College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2019) Neethu Mary Newton; KAU; Gopakumar, S
The present study “Impact of participatory forest management on livelihoods of indigenous communities” was conducted in five randomly selected VSS which were active in Central Forest Circle, Thrissur. The objectives of the study were to understand the impact of participatory forest management on livelihoods of indigenous communities. A perception analysis to know the pre-PFM and post-PFM situations as perceived by the community was also done. Sustainable livelihood analysis was the method used for the impact study. Primary data was collected through a pre-tested interview schedule. Secondary data was collected from forest department records, village records and from discussion with people. The study revealed that PFM had a positive impact on the livelihood of the local communities in the selected five Vana Samrakshana Samithies namely Anapantham VSS, Karikadavu VSS, Kunchipara VSS, Poovanchira VSS and Vazhachal VSS. Impact analysis of Anapantham VSS showed that after the implementation of PFM activities, there were improvements in the financial capital, physical capital and social capital while a reduction was noticed in the natural capital and human capital compared to the pre-PFM situation. Impact analysis of Karikadavu VSS showed that after the implementation of PFM activities, there were improvements in the social capital, financial capital and physical capital. At the same time, a reduction was noticed in the natural capital and human capital compared to the pre-PFM situation. Impact analysis of Kunchipara VSS showed that after the implementation of PFM activities, there were improvements in the physical capital, financial capital and social capital. On the other hand, the human capital was unaffected. At the same time, a reduction was noticed in the natural capital compared to the pre-PFM situation. Impact analysis of Poovanchira VSS showed that after the implementation of PFM activities, there were improvements in the financial capital, physical capital, human capital and social capital. At the same time, a reduction was noticed in the natural capital compared to the pre-PFM situation. Impact analysis of Vazhachal VSS showed that after the implementation of PFM activities, there were improvements in the financial capital, physical capital and social capital. At the same time, a reduction was noticed in the natural capital and human capital compared to the pre-PFM situation. Perceptions of local people regarding the conditions before and after PFM were different in all the VSS. The difference in perception was highest in Poovanchira VSS, while the lowest variation was observed in Kunchipara VSS and Karikadavu VSS. The highest variation in perception score was in Vazhachal VSS and the lowest variation in perception score was in Poovanchira VSS. PFM activities were not significantly different in the three pairs of VSS namely Anapantham & Karikadavu, Vazhachal & Anapantham and Vazhachal & Karikadavu before implementation of PFM. PFM activities were not significantly different in four pairs of VSS namely Anapantham & Karikadavu, Anapantham & Kunchipara, Kunchipara & Karikadavu and Poovanchira & Kunchipara was observed. Suggestions to improve the underperforming capitals in the various VSS include increase in number of work days, planting of trees, restrictions on waste disposal in the water bodies.
Open Access
Characterisation of phytopathogenic fungi in nursery seedlings of Tectona grandis L.F, Swietenia macrophylla King and Cassia fistula L. In Central Kerala
(Department of Forest Management and Utilisation, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2017) Kiran Mohan; KAU; Gopakumar, S
Disease free planting stock significantly ensures a better field survival while at the same time reducing the burden of economic loss. Teak, mahogany and Indian laburnum which are extensively used for afforestation programmes in India are attacked by several fungal pathogens at nursery stage. Hence an investigation was undertaken to identify the fungal diseases associated with above mentioned seedlings in Kerala and also to assess the efficacy of selected fungicides and bio-control agents against these pathogens through in vitro studies. Purposive sampling survey was conducted in eighteen Government tree nurseries of Thrissur (10 nos.) and Palakkad (8 nos.) districts during the summer (February-May), monsoon (June- September) and post monsoon (October-January) seasons for monitoring the occurrence of fungal diseases and collection of diseased samples. Out of the fifteen fungal diseases observed, nine was from teak, two was from mahogany and four was from Indian laburnum seedlings. Fungal diseases observed from teak seedlings included teak leaf blight (TLB), teak leaf spot-1 (TLS-1), teak leaf spot-2 (TLS-2), teak leaf spot-3 (TLS-3), teak leaf spot-4 (TLS-4), teak collar rot, teak root rot-1 and teak root rot-2. In the case of mahogany, mahogany leaf blight-1 (MLB-1) and mahogany leaf blight- 2 (MLB-2) were noticed. Four foliar diseases were observed from Indian laburnum viz., Indian laburnum leaf blight-1 (ILB-1), Indian laburnum leaf blight-2 (ILB-2), Indian laburnum leaf spot-1 (ILS-1) and Indian laburnum leaf spot-2 (ILS-2). TLB was found to be most severe foliar disease in teak and maximum Percent Disease Index (PDI) and Percent Disease Severity (PDS) of 63.50 and 18.72 per cent respectively were recorded from Vellanikkara in Thrissur district. Collar rot (PDI 18%) was observed only from Chettikkulam in Thrissur district. Chittur (Teak root rot-1) recorded maximum PDI of 34.5 per cent. In mahogany, MLB-1 observed from Aatoor recorded maximum PDI (57.50 %) while maximum PDS (10.4%) was recorded from Vellanikkara. In Indian laburnum, ILS-2 observed from Vellanikkara recorded maximum PDI (38.50%) as well as PDS (5.76%). TLB showed positive correlation with temperature while it showed a negative correlation with relative humidity. TLB symptoms originated as small irregular grey to blackish spots surrounded by yellow halo scattered over the lamina. Symptoms of teak leaf spot (TLS-1, TLS-2, TLS-3 and TLS-4) started as small necrotic spots and were generally observed in old, mature leaves. Leaf blights in mahogany (MLB-1 and MLB-2) was characterized by necrotic regions with definite black margin. Leaf blight diseases of Indian laburnum (ILB-1 and ILB-2) were observed as necrotic regions in the tip as well as base of the leaf. Leaf spots (ILS-1, ILS-2) occurred as medium sized spots on the upper surface of the leaf. Pathogenicity of the thirteen isolates was proved by Mycelial Bit Inoculation Method (MBIM) as well as Micro Droplet Inoculation Technique (MDIT). Spore suspension method was adopted for collar and root disease. Cultural as well as morphological characters of pathogens were studied and morphological identification done with the expert advice of National Centre for Fungal Taxonomy (NCFT), New Delhi. Molecular identification of selected pathogen was done at Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Thiruvananthapuram. The causative pathogen in TLB was identified as Curvularia eragrostidis, in TLS-1 as Alternaria alternata, in TLS-2 as Macrophomina phaseolina, in TLS-3 as Botryodiplodia theobromae, in TLS-4 as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, collar rot pathogen as Alternaria alternata, root rot-1 pathogen as Fusarium solani and root rot-2 pathogen as Fusarium oxysporum. Olevea tectonae was confirmed as the pathogen of teak rust fungus. MLB-1 and MLB-2 were caused by Curvularia geniculata and Alternaria alternata respectively. In Indian laburnum, Alternaria alternata (ILB-1), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (ILS-1) and Phoma cassiocarpa (ILS-2) were the disease causing pathogens. The identity of obligate parasite causing ILB-2 was also confirmed as Cercospora sp. in vitro evaluation studies revealed that carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63%, difenoconazole 25EC, carbendazim 50WP to beefficient against teak foliar diseases. Similarly carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63%, carbendazim 50WP, hexaconazole 5EC showed promising results against collar and root diseases of teak. Carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63%, hexaconazole 5EC, cymoxanil 8% + mancozeb 64%, propineb 70WP, carbendazim 50WP were observed to be efficient against foliar diseases of mahogany. In Indian laburnum, hexaconazole 5EC, difenoconazole 25EC, carbendazim 50WP, carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63% were found to be efficient. The fungal antagonist Trichoderma asperellum showed promising results compared to the bacterial antagonist Pseudomonas fluorescens.

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