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Open Access
Stand density manipulation and fertilization studies on teak
(College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 1991) Gawande, S R; Mohankumar, B
With the object of standardizing the density manipulation and fertilization strategies for teak, a study was carried out at Vellanikkara during 1990-91. The experimental variables consisted of high, medium and low site quality classes (classified on basis of tree heights), three thinning intensities (control, 30 per cent density reduction and 50 per cent density reduction) and three fertilizer levels (control, 50:25:25 kg of N, P2 O5 and K2O ha -1 yr-1, 100: 50:50 kg of N, P2 O5 and K2O ha-1 yr-1). The results indicate that mean height of trees was strongly influenced by density manipulation. The combination of high site quality with medium and heavy fertilizer doses also significantly increased the mean height of trees. However quadratic mean diameter, stand basal area, basal area increment and height increment were not substantially different among the thinning site quality and fertilization regimes. Tree biomass, foliage area and leaf weight allometry were examined for the first time in teak. The results suggest that leaf area and the biomass yield are strongly dependent on the allometry of trees. High sites consistently recorded higher values for estimates of leaf area, leaf biomass and tree biomass. Combinations of high site quality with medium and heavy thinning as well as medium and heavy fertilization recorded high tree biomass yield, foliage area and leaf area followed by medium and low site quality classes. Foliar analyses showed a general increase in leaf nitrogen during summer (May) and a gradual decline of the same during the fall season (August). High site quality with medium and heavy fertilization recorded highest nitrogen content. Thinning on higher sites significantly increased foliage phosphorus and potassium levels. In general the trend concerning nutrient contents of different tree organs followed the order leaves> stemwood> branchwood. Branch wood and stem wood N levels were relatively higher on high sites. Potassium content was, however, greatest in the low sites. Soil nutrient analysis did not indicate any substantial changes in the soil physico-chemical properties consequent to thinning and fertilization which incidentally substantiates Miller’s hypothesis on forest fertilization that fertilizers benefits only the trees and not the sites.
Open Access
Comparative performance of three exotic tree species in social forestry strip plantation in Trichur Social Forestry Division
(College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 1990) Nandakumar, G; KAU; KrishnanNair, V R
A study was conducted in 1987-88 on the social forestry strip plantation on the premises of the Sitaram Textile mills Ltd. In the Trichur Social Forestry Division of Kerala State; to compare the performance of three exotic fast growing tree species, Casuarina equisetifolia, Acacia auriculiformis and Eucalyptus tereticornis in social forestry strip plantation. Comparisons were made on the three year old plantation in respect of growth, biomass production and impact on the soil and undergrowth. General observations were also made on the tree form, occurance of pests and diseases and wild life habitat improvement. The site of experiment was being used for dumping coal cinders and other wastes from the textile mill and was barren before planting. The experiment was laid out in RBD with five replications. The results obtained in the study have been summarised below : At the end of the third year Acacia auriculiformis had a DBH of 4.56 cm followed by Eucalyptus tereticornis with 3.82 cm and Casuarina equisetifolia with 1.62 cm. The mean annual diameter increments were 1.44 cm/year in Acacia, 1.20 cm/year in Eucalyptus and 0.51 cm/year in Casuarina. Acacia had more primary branches (27/tree) followed by Eucalyptus (23/tree) and Casuarina (17/tree). The first primary branch was 3.18 m above the ground in Eucalyptus, 2.22 m in Acacia and in 2.16 m in Casuarina. Acacia had 100% survival at the third year while Eucalyptus had 88%. But Casuarina had only 72% survival rates. In growth as well as survival, Acacia auriculiformis was found to be the best among the three. Eucalyptus tereticornis was found superior to Casusrina equisetifolia while the latter was the least impressive of the three. The total biomass yield at the third year was 98.438 mt (drymatter)/ha in Acacia auriculiformis, 48.424 mt/ha in Eucalyptus tereticornis and 12.506 mt/ha in Casuarina equisetifolia. Acacia had a mean annual biomass increment of 32.813 mt/ha. MAI of Eucalyptus was 16.141 mt/ha while that of Casuarina was only 4.169 mt/ha. In biomass production too, Acacia auriculiformis was found superior to Eucalyptus tereticornis and Casuarina equisetifolia. Of the three species Casuarina equisetifolia with a light intensity on the floor of 49.5% was the least shading one, followed by Eucalyptus tereticornis with 43.6% and Acacia auriculiformis with 30.6%. Eucalyptus was found to permit luxuriant undergrowth, so also casuarina. The above ground phytomass was 1.431 kg drymatter/m2 in Eucalyptus and 1,176 kg/m2 in Casuarina. But Acacia was found to inhibit undergrowth (0.183 kg/m2 ). Even the little undergrowth that was permitted by it comprised mostly of its own seedlings. The undergrowth in Eucalyptus comprised mostly of woody species (65.5%) while that of casuarina comprised mostly of grasses (68.5%). The presence of coal cinders had caused a rise in the soil pH, organic matter content, available Nitrogen content and available phosphorus content of the soil. The lowest pH value in the top soil was found in Acacia soil 4.31. Eucalyptus soil had 4.69 and Casuarina soil had 4.94 compared to the barren laterite (5.16) and the barren laterite with coal cinders (5.32). At the depth of 30-45 cm, the pH values were 4.85 in Acasia soil, 5.17 in Casuarina soil and 5.32 in Eucalptus soil. The barren laterite had a pH of 5.24 and in the barren laterite with coal cinders it was 5.42. The pH at 60-70 cm depth was 4.88 in Acacia soil 5.24 in Casuarina soil, 5.33 in Eucalyptus soil, 5.36 in barren laterite and 5.52 in barren laterite with coal cinders. All the three species reduced the pH of the soil. But Acacia auriculiformis was found to lower the pH of the soil more than the other two. pH increased with the depth in all the treatments. The organic carbon contents in the top soils were 0.57% in Acacia, 0.41% in Eucalyptus, 0.49% in Casuarina, 0.39% in barren laterite and 0.43% in barren laterite with coal cinders. The organic matter content was found to decrease as depth increased in all the treatments. There was a general rise in the organic carbon content of the soils due to the impact of the three species with the maximum in Acacia soils and the minimum in Casuarina soils. The available Nitrogen content in the top soil was 1277 kg/ha in Acacia, 1165 kg/ha in Eucalyptus, 1098 kg/ha in Casuarina, 874 kg/ha in barren laterite and 963 kg/ha in barren laterite with coal cinders. There was a reduction in the available Nitrogen content as the soil depth increased in all the treatments. All the three species caused an increase in the available Nitrogen content of the soil, the highest being observed in Acacia auriculiformis followed by Eucalyptus tereticornis. The available Potash content of the soils did not record any change under the different species. The available phosphorus contents of the top soils were 92.7 kg/ha in Casuarina, 90 kg/ha in Eucalyptus, 81.5 kg/ha in Acacia. 79.3 kg/ha in barren lateric and 87.4 kg/ha in the barren laterite with coal cinders. There was reduction in the content of the nutrient as depth increased in all the treatments. In Acacia soils the content of the available Phosphorus had decreased. Regarding the general observations, Acacia auriculiformis showed pronounced branching habits while Eucalyptus and Casuarina had more or less clean boles. Pests and diseases were not observed excepting the pink disease (c.o. Corticium salmonicolor) in Eucalyptus. Crows and rodents were the principal representatives of wild life in the plantion. Honey bees commonly foraged the inflorescence of Acacia. Acacia auriculiformis proved itself to be a highly promising tree for energy plantations and for afforesting sites dumped with coal cinders and for sites offering little protection from anthropogenic influences and grazing. It also improved the organic matter content and available nitrogen content of the soil and was free from graziers. But at the same time there were also unwelcome effects due to Acacia such as increasing the acidity of the soil and supressing undergrowth. It also tended to be highly branching. Eucalyptus tereticornis also was found to be good in growth and biomass production and could be recommended for similar sites. The species also enriched the soil by increasing the contents of organic carbon and available Nitrogen. Though it too reduced the pH of the soil, the species was found to support luxuriant undergrowth and was spared by graziers. Casuarina equisetifolia was a less suitable species for such a site as seen from the performance of the species. It suffered heavily from browsing and showed lesser survival growth and yield. But the species increased the organic carbon content and available Nitrogen content of the soil and permitted luxuriant undergrowth especially grasses.
Open Access
Social behaviour, dominance hierarchy and reproductive behaviour of sambar deer (cervus unicolor)
(College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 1991) Krishnakumar, Kumar; R, KAU; Jacob Cheeran, V
A study was undertaken to investigate the social behaviour, dominance hierarchy and reproductive behaviour of sambar deer in captivity, mainly with the intention of evaluating the adaptability of the species to captive breeding. This study was conducted on the population of sambar deer in captivity at Trichur and Trivandrum zoos. Behavioural observations were made during a period spanning five months totally – from November – December 1988 to April – May 1989, on days at random. There were 21 deer in the herd at Trichur and 20 at Trivandrum. It was observed that the living conditions of the deer in these zoos are far from comparison to that of their natural habitats. Food, herd size, competition, nearest neighbour relationship etc: are strikingly different from nature. But, in spite of all adversities, the sambar deer have learned to adapt amazingly to changing conditions, and survive fairly well. The physiological processes of their lives, such as antler casting, rut, mating, gestation and delivery remain as scheduled, except for observations that births occur at any time of the year in captivity sometimes, which is in effect to the advantage of the captive -breeder ! Maintenance of ideal herd composition at any given time would help better the living conditions as well as curtail traumatic injuries and casualties. Paucity of adequate space is a serious constraint faced by these zoos. It is time that voluntary organisations and individuals came forward with earnest interest in the upkeep of zoos as in foreign countries ; rather than leaving the whole show in the sole hands of the government as the present practice. General awareness and overall change in the attitude of the public towards our vanishing wildlife is the need of the hour.
Open Access
Nutritional deficiency symptoms of ailanthus (ailanthuis triphyra (dennst.) alston)
(College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 1993) Anoop EV; Gopikumar K
Sand culture experiments were carried out under controlled conditions inside a glasshouse attached to College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University main campus, Vellanikkara, during the period 1991-93 for inducing deficiency symptoms of various nutrient elements in the seedlings of Ailanthus (Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston). The effects of major nutrients viz., N, P, K Mg and S on the growth, chlorophyll content and nutrient concentration of seedlings in the nursery were also studied. The results were also confirmed by recovery studies by supplying the seedlings showing the symptoms of deficiency of various elements with complete nutrient solution. For the study, two months old seedlings of uniform growth were planted in containers filled with pure quartz sand and supplied with Hoagland No.2 (1948) nutrient solution. The treatment solution was prepared by eliminating the desired nutrient from the complete Hoagland nutrient solution. The characteristic deficiency symptoms produced by seedlings due to the deficiency of various nutrient elements include leaf discolouration, necrosis, scorching, defoliation and growth stunting. The seedlings showing visual deficiency symptoms were also photographed. Seedlings that received complete nutrient solution were healthy with dark green foliage. Vegetative growth of the seedlings was also found to be affected due to the nutrient stress. All the fractions of chlorophyll i.e., chlorophyll – A, chlorophyll – B and total chlorophyll of the treatment seedlings declined during the study period compared to control. Visual deficiency symptoms of the nutrient elements also coincided with a corresponding reduction in foliar levels of the concerned element. There was remarkable improvement in the growth and recovery of visual symptoms when the deficient element concerned was again supplied to the seedlings through complete nutrient solution.
Open Access
Evaluation of provenances for seedling attributes in teak
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry,Vellanikkara, 1996) Jayasankar, S; KAU; Luckins Babu, C
A randomized block design experiment involving the performance of selected provenances ie., Arienkavu, Konni, Malayattur, Nilambur, Parambikulam, Wynad and Thrissur (Local provenance) of Tectona grandis Linn. F. initiated during June, 1995 was used for the present investigation. The objective of the study included qualifying the seed characters, growth parameters, physiological and anatomical characters, root growth potential, field establishment and also elucidating the extent of nutrient uptake pattern, besides characterising the nutrient status dynamics. Seed characteristics like mean number of seeds per kg, 100 seed weight, purity percentage and individual seed parameters were found to vary significantly among the provenances tested. Parambikulam was found to be superior to other provenances, while local provenance recorded the least values for most of the parameters. Germination behaviour of teak provenances in the laboratory varied considerably among provenances. The overall performance was better in Konni which recorded a high germination percentage, peak value and MDG. Malayattur was showed to be inferior in these respects. Shoot, root growth, biomass allocation pattern, RGR and NAR were followed the trend that, Parambikulam, Nilambur and Malayattur consistently registered better growth rates in most of the stages of experimental period while, local provenance recorded the least values. Physiological parameters like LDR, transpiration rate, leaf water potential and RWC were influenced considerably among the provenances. Anatomical character like stomatal frequency was also varied among provenances throughout the period. Concentration of nutrient in the different plant parts and uptake pattern were found to be higher in Malayattur, Nilambur and Parambikulam especially with a high magnitude of N use efficiency. Local provenance registered a low accumulation of nutrients in different plant parts. Root growth potential studies showed significant variation among the provenances. Malayattur and Nilambur provenances had relatively higher values in RGP. While, Thrissur recorded a poor growth performance in this respect.
Open Access
Biomass production and resource partitioning in silvi-pastoral systems
(College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 1993) Suman Jacob, George; KAU; Mohankumar, B
A randomized block design experiment involving factorial combinations of four fodder species : Pennisetum purpureum (hybrid napier), Brachiaria ruziziensis (congo signal), Panicum maximum (guinea grass) and Zea Mexicana (Teosinte) and four tree species (Leucaena leucocephala, Casuarina equisetifolia, Acacia auriculiformis and Ailanthus triphysa initiated in June 1988 was used for the present investigations. The study was pursued with the objective of quantifying the biomass production potential of selected forage species grown in association with tree components after canopy closure, comparing the productivity of different tree components grown in silvopastoral systems; characterizing the micro-site enrichment and nutrient cycling aspects of silvopastoral systems, analysis the partitioning of solar radiation among the different components of the system and elucidate influence regarding the nature of root interactions in silvopastoral systems. The tree attributes such as biomass, height, DBH and crown diameter were in the order acasia > leucaena>casuarinas>ailanthus and the fodder biomasses were in the order hybrid napier> guinea grass > congo signal>teosinte. The concentration of N,P and K in the above ground portion decreased in the order: leaves >Branches >bole. The N-fixing trees, in general, had lower nutrient – use efficiencies. Amount of photosynthetically active radiation interception by the tree canopy was a cardinal factor effecting the herbage yield a direct correspondence was lacking. All the three N-fixing species had markedly higher soil nitrogen status. Soil organic matter, K and P were also higher under the tree canopy. Recovery pattern of 32p isotope injected in the soil revealed that 65 to 85 percent of the fine roots responsible for water and nutrient absorption were concentrated in the 0-15 cms layer of the soil profile. However, 32P recovery from the tree monocultures was generally low suggesting stimulatory effect of nutrient absorption by trees in presence of an associated field crop. The rate of litterfall amount of detritus produced ranged from 1.92 Mg ha-1 yr-1 (ailanthus) to 6.2 Mg ha-1 yr-1 (acacia). Relatively lower contents of nitrogen and phosphorus in the litter recorded during the dry period (March-April). Regarding the inter – specific variations with regards to litter decomposition rates, casuarina and leucaena litter decomposed at a faster rate than acacia and leucaena. The nitrogen and phosphorous contents of the decomposing litter increased during the one – year decay period for all the species. Although widely accepted and yield initial N, lignin or initial lignin/nitrogen could not be directly related to decay rate coefficients in the present study.
Open Access
Response of selected forestry and agroforestry tree seedling to water stress
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, 1996) Rajesh, N; KAU; Ashokan, P K
An experiment was conducted at the College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur during the period from 1994 to 1995 with seedlings of Acacia mangium Willd., Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Swietenia macrophylla King and Tectona grandis L.F. to study the response of the species to water stress. The results showed that the growth characteristics and Physiological behaviour of all the five species were adversely affected due to water stress. Among the five species studied S. macrophylla was the most sensitive species and did not show much adaptations to tolerate water stress. Eventhough A. mangium showed adaptations like quick closure of stomata, thick cuticle and low chloroplast disintegration when exposed to water stress, growth characteristics were found to be adversely affected due to water stress. So the species has to be tested for its water stress tolerance in a long term experiment. Pterocarpus marsupium was also found to be sensitive to water stress and all the growth characters were adversely affected. However, it showed relatively high net photosynthesis and relative growth rate. Ailanthus triphysa was the least sensitive species to water stress. Considering the relative growth rate and net photosynthesis, A. triphysa and P. marsupium are rated to perform well under dry situations. Among the five species studied T. grandis seedlings showed symptoms of permanent wilting when the water stress was increased from moderate (~ 5 Bar SMT) to severe (~ 10 Bar SMT) levels. Other species did not show permanent wilting even when the plants were not watered for nine days condinuously (S3). Growth characteristics in T. grandis was not much affected due to mild (S1) levels of water stress eventhough the plants wilted and dried under severe water stress (S3).
Open Access
Growth and nodulation characteristics of selected indigenous tree legumes
(Department of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 1997) Harikrishnan, Nair G; KAU; Asokan, P K
An investigation was carried out to study the nodulation characteristics of seven Indigenous/ naturalized tree legumes in Trichur district of Kerala State. The homesteads of five selected panchayats viz. Pananchery, Madakkathara, Nadathara, Puthur and Ollukkara of the district were surveyed to assess the natural nodulation and to collect nodules for isolating Rhizobium.• The response of these tree legumes to inoculation with local isolates and commercial cultures of Rhizobium were done by seed inoculation and growing the seedlings in a glass house. In a separate experiment, the soil collected from the base of the nodulating tree were also evaluated as an inoculant. The inoculation studies were laid out in CRD with ten replications.
Open Access
Habitat utilisation of animals and their parastic burden with special refference to elephant in Vazhachal Forest Division , Kerala, South India
(Department of Wildlife Science, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 1996) Animon, M M; KAU; Jacob, V Cheeran
An investigation was carried out in Vazhachal Forest Division, Kerala, South India during 1994-95 to identify the habitat utilization and seasonal movement patterns of the wild elephants (Elephas maximus indicus). Estimating the population of elephants, finding out the impacts of elephants on woody vegetation, identifying the internal parasites of elephants, studying the need and type of mineral supplements and assessing the importance of Vazhachal as a zone of tourism were also aimed by this study. Habitat utilisation and seasonal movements were studied by indirect methods based on dropping count. Population was estimated by a direct simultaneous count. Vegetation damages were assessed by demarcating plots of size 25x25 m randomly in the study area. Parasitic analysis of fresh dungs was done by centrifugal sedimentation technique and microscopical examination. Mineral mixtures of different concentrations were placed in the area to study the preference for minerals. Data on income from Vazhachal was collected to assess the importance of Vazhachal as tourism centre. Seasonal movements reflected the habitat utilization patterns. Preference of habitats by elephants varied with season. Moist deciduous forests were preferred most in winter season whereas it was least preferred in summer. Evergreen forests were preferred over the moist deciduous forests only during summer season. Acacia plantations were most preferred in summer seasons and was least preferred in first rainy season. Preference for teak plantations were comparatively high during summer and first rainy season. A seasonal movement from thickly vegetated east end of the division to open and secondary forest dominated west end was evident. Great variations in dung densities of individual transects indicated a continuous movement of elephants in the study area. Elephant population at Vazhachal comprised of 155 elephants with a sex ratio (male : female) of 1:6.5 and a crude density of 0.38 elephant/km2. Debarking and breaking tops were the main forms of damages in Teak (Tectona grandis), Papitta (Pterocymbium tinctorium) and Albizia (Albizia falcataria) plantations. Breaking of tops and pushing over accounted for main damages in Bombax (Bombax ceiba) plantations. Damages were comparatively less in moist deciduous and evergreen forests. A total of 35species were found to be debarked in whole of the study area. Elephants preferred mineral mixture with high concentration of minerals and this stresses the need of supplementation of required minerals. Majority of the dungs analysed showed the presence of parasites strongylus and tape worm, indicating heavy infection. Increase in income from tourism in Vazhachal indicates the increasing importance of Vazhachal forests in the tourism map of Kerala. The tourist influx was found to vary with changes in rainfall pattern.

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