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ThesisItem Open Access Nutrients and tillage interactions in rice fallow cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) production(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Vandana, G Pai; KAU; Prameela, PAn experiment entitled “Nutrients and tillage interactions in rice fallow cowpea production” was conducted during 2017-2019 at College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara of Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur. The study consisted of two experiments. Experiment-1 was a pot culture study undertaken during 2017, to find out optimum dose of potassium and magnesium sulphate for cowpea. The experiment was laid out in CRD with 14 treatments and three replications. The treatments included three levels of K2O (10, 20 and 40 kg/ha), and four levels of MgSO4 (40, 60, 80 and 100 kg/ha). Apart from K: MgSO4 @ 10:80 kg/ha (KAU package of practices) and soil test based nutrition (K: MgSO4 @12:80 kg/ha) were also included. Nitrogen and P2O5 were applied at the rate of 20 and 30 kg/ha, respectively, uniformly to all pots. A bush type variety of cowpea Anaswara released from Kerala Agricultural University was used in the study. In the pot culture experiment, application of K2O: MgSO4 @ 40: 40 kg/ha and 40:100 kg/ha resulted in taller plants. At 60 DAS, POP based nutrient application registered more number of branches (12.7 /plant), which was on par with K2O: MgSO4 @ 10:60 (T2), 20:40 (T5), 20:100 (T8), 40:40 (T9), 40:80 (T11), 40:100 (T12) kg/ha as well as to soil test based nutrition (T14). Highest number of root nodules (201) and higher dry matter production at harvest (44 g/plant) was observed in application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:100 kg/ha (T12). An increase in dry matter production of cowpea was observed with magnesium sulphate nutrition. Various levels of K and Mg resulted in significant variation in chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll content. Application of potassium and MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha resulted in higher number of pods and grain yield (40.3 g/plant) and it was statistically comparable to T11 and T12 (K2O: MgSO4 @ 40:80 & 40:100 kg/ha). Based on grain yield, treatments K: MgSO4 @ 20:60 kg/ha, 20:80 kg/ha, 40:60 kg/ha, 40:80 kg/ha were selected for field trial along with soil test based nutrition as control. The second experiment aimed at assessing the effect of various tillage practices, and varied doses of potassium and MgSO4 on growth and yield of cowpea and to work out economic viability. Field experiments were undertaken in rice fallow during 2017 and 2018 (November/December - March/April). Soil of the filed was high in organic carbon, available N, but deficient in available P, K, and Mg. The experiment was laid out in RBD and the treatments were factorial combinations of three types of tillage and varied doses of potassium and magnesium sulphate and it was replicated thrice. Zero tillage (ZT- M1), minimum tillage (MT- M2) and conventional tillage (CT- M3) were the major factors and five nutrient doses (S1-S5) were soil test based nutrition (S1- 11-13 kg K2O/ha along with 80 kg MgSO4/ha), 20 kg K2O/ha along with 60 kg/ 80 kg MgSO4/ha (S2 & S3) and 40 kg K2O/ha along with 60 kg/ 80 kg MgSO4/ha (S4 & S5). N and P2O5 were applied at the rate of 20 kg/ha and 30 kg/ha in all plots. Seeds were dibbled at spacing of 30 cm x 15 cm. In zero tillage, herbicide glyphosate was sprayed @ 0.85 kg/ha two weeks before sowing. In minimum tillage, strip tillage using spade was adopted at a spacing of 30 cm. In conventional tillage, land was ploughed twice followed by formation of small ridges and furrows at a spacing of 30 cm. The plot size was 6 m x 4.2 m. Germination percentage of cowpea (at 7 DAS) was significantly higher in conventional tillage (79 %), whereas, it was very low in zero till (44 %) and intermediate in MT (58 %). Tillage systems and potassium, magnesium sulphate doses had no significant effect on plant height of cowpea, and at 60 DAS average height was 47.5 cm, 52.9 cm and 48.4 cm under zero tillage, minimum tillage and conventional tillage, respectively. At 45 DAS and 60 DAS minimum tillage resulted in higher number of branches per plant whereas, plants in conventional tillage showed earliness in 50 % flowering. Significantly higher LAI was recorded in zero tillage, followed by minimum and conventional tillage. Application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha also resulted in higher LAI. Zero tillage along with K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha (M1S5) recorded the highest LAI. Tillage had no significant effect on chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll content and on chlorophyll a/b ratio. Whereas, potassium and magnesium sulphate application had significant effect on chlorophyll content. Application of K: MgSO4 @ 20:60 kg/ha and K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha resulted in higher as well as comparable chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll content. Among interactions ZT with K: MgSO4 @ 12:80 kg/ha (soil test) and CT along with K: MgSO4 @ 20:60 kg/ha higher chlorophyll a content. Dry matter production at early growth stage was higher under conventional tillage, followed by minimum tillage and zero tillage. Whereas, at 75 DAS, highest dry matter was registered under minimum tillage (3240 kg/ha). However, at 90 DAS, both minimum and conventional tillage resulted in higher as well as comparable dry matter (2043 kg/ha and 2085 kg/ha). Root length and root spread were higher under zero tillage followed by MT and CT. Application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha also resulted in higher root spread. Zero tillage with K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha (45.2 cm) resulted in longest roots and higher root spread (2695 cm2). Conventional tillage along with supply of K and MgSO4@ 40 and 80 kg /ha registered shortest roots and lower root spread. Pooled analysis showed that, among various tillage systems, significantly higher grain yield was realized under minimum tillage (735 kg/ha). This was followed by conventional tillage (648 kg/ha) and zero tillage (618 kg/ha) which were on par. Among varied potassium and magnesium doses, application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha was found to be the best (grain yield of 806 kg/ha). Hence combination of minimum tillage along with K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha resulted in the highest grain yield (915 kg/ha). Uptake of nutrients at 30 DAS followed the order of CT>MT>ZT. At harvest, higher uptake of potassium, and magnesium was noted in K: MgSO4 @ 40:60 kg/ha under minimum tillage. There was no significant variation with respect to grain protein content of cowpea due to various tillage practices whereas higher content was registered with application of K: MgSO4 @ 40:80 kg/ha (26.2 %).ThesisItem Open Access Agro techniques for bush type vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) under open precision farming(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Chijina, K; KAU; Latha, ACowpea is an important legume vegetable crop known as vegetable meat because of high protein content (24.8 %). The average productivity of cowpea in India is 607 kg/ha (ICAR, 2020) which is considered to be low. Productivity of the crop can be enhanced through selection of appropriate varieties and advanced technologies in management of nutrients and water. Since the research work on cowpea under open precision farming in Kerala is meagre, an attempt was made to standardise the agro techniques for enhancing the yield and profit to the growers. The research work on the topic “Agro techniques for bush type vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) under open precision farming” was undertaken in the Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 2017- 2019. The project was aimed to standardize optimum spacing and irrigation requirement of bush type cowpea for enhanced growth and yield under open precision farming. It also aimed to develop a fertigation schedule and to study the response of biofertilisers and foliar nutrition on bush type vegetable cowpea. The first experiment on “Evaluation of genotypes and optimization of spacing for enhanced growth and yield of bush type vegetable cowpea under open precision farming” was laid out with five genotypes viz. Lalita, VU-5, Bhagyalakshmi, Kashi Kanchan, Pusa Komal and Anaswara and three spacings viz. 60 cm x 30 cm, 45 cm x 30 cm and 30 cm x 15 cm, replicated thrice. Among the genotypes Lalita performed better in terms of growth characters and yield and the poor performance was recorded by genotype VU-5. The wider row spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm had a significant superior effect on growth characters and yield of cowpea. The best treatment of genotype Lalita and wider spacing of 60 x 30 cm were selected for the subsequent experiments. The second experiment on “Standardization of source of nutrients and levels of fertigation in bush type vegetable cowpea under open precision farming” was carried out with four levels of fertilizers and three sources of nutrients replicated thrice under open precision farming. The levels of fertilizers were arrived based on the nutrient uptake pattern. The fertigation was given at twenty equal splits doses with conventional and water soluble fertilizers and their combination. The results revealed that there was no significant difference between the levels of fertilizers with respect to growth and yield of cowpea and the application of 20:30:10 kg N, P2O5, K2O per hectare was found to be sufficient for the comparable performance of cowpea with other levels. Fertigation through conventional fertilizers viz. urea, diammonium phosphate and muriate of potash had comparable effect with water soluble fertilizers and their combination in terms of growth and yield of cowpea. The third experiment on “Standardization of irrigation schedule and response of biofertilisers on bush type vegetable cowpea under open precision farming” was conducted to standardize the schedule of drip irrigation and to study the response of biofertilisers and foliar nutrition on bush type vegetable cowpea under open precision farming. Drip irrigation at 100 per cent Ep recorded higher fresh pod yield which was on par with 80 per cent Ep. Water productivity was significantly influenced by irrigation levels and higher water productivity was recorded with drip irrigation at 80 per cent Ep. Combined application of 60 per cent of the recommended dose of fertilizers (20:30:10 kg N, P2O5, K2O / ha) through fertigation as conventional fertilizers and 40 per cent through foliar application using water soluble fertilizers recoded higher fresh pod yield as well as quality characteristics compared to fertigation alone. It is concluded that genotype Lalita at wider spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm was found promising for enhanced growth and yield of bush type vegetable cowpea under open precision farming. Fertigation with conventional fertilizers viz. urea, diammonium phosphate and muriate of potash at the rate of 20:30:10 kg N, P2O5, K2O per hectare found optimum in term of growth and yield under open precision farming. Combined application of 60 per cent of the recommended dose of fertilizers (20:30:10 kg N, P2O5, K2O /ha) through fertigation with conventional fertilizers viz. urea, diammonium phosphate and muriate of potash and 40 per cent through foliar nutrition using water soluble fertilizers with drip irrigation schedule at 80 per cent Ep was found superior for maximum water productivity, yield and profit of bush type cowpea under open precision farming.ThesisItem Open Access Biology and management of Sacciolepis interrupta (Wild.) Stapf in rice(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Pujari Shobha, Rani; KAU; Meera V, MenonSacciolepis interrupta is a tropical grass weed which mimics rice crop at early stages of growth and of late has been appearing as a major weed in many rice growing areas. In India, it is reported in rice growing areas of eastern India and Kerala. In Kerala, the occurrence of S. interrupta was earlier confined to semi dry rice cultivation in Palakkad districts however, now it has been reported in wet seeded as well as transplanted rice culture in other parts of the State. Knowledge on biology and ecology of weeds and their interaction with crops play a key role in weed management. The research programme entitled ‘Biology and management of Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf in rice’, included field survey, laboratory, pot culture and field experiments to study the biology, growth, propagation, dormancy and germination requirements of S. interrupta. The study assessed the efficacy of different pre and post-emergence herbicides, individually as well as in an integrated manner, so as to develop an effective recommendation for management of S. interrupta in direct seeded rice. Surveys were conducted twice in the major rice tracts of Kerala viz., Kole, Kuttanad and Palakkad. The results of the survey suggested the probability of S. interrupta becoming a problem weed in rice tracts of Kerala, and attaining the status of a dominant weed like weedy rice. The density and dominance indices clearly indicated the severity of this weed in the surveyed areas. Based on morphological characters of different morphotypes found in the surveyed areas, S. interrupta could be grouped into three groups: A, B and C, which might have evolved as an adaptation to the existing habitat, cultural practices and climatic conditions. Group A (green variegated) refered to morphotypes from Palakkad with medium stature and narrow light green leaves and having green coloured panicles (4-6 nos./plant), oblong spikelets (311-348 spikelets/panicle), and spikelet length and width varying between 4.6-4.8 mm and 0.9-1.3 mm respectively. Group B (purple variegated) from Kole tract, with tall statured plants and narrow dark green leaves, had purple coloured panicles (4-6 nos./plant), and enlongated spikelets (311-348 spikelets/panicle), with spikelet length of 4.6-4.8 mm and width of about 0.9-1.3 mm. Kuttanad tract types were categorized into Group C (green-purple variegated), which were short statured, profuse tillering plants with broad dark green leaves having bicoloured green and purple panicles (6-8 nos./plant), oblong to bulged spikelets (378-391 spikelets/panicle), and short spikelets with length of 4.1-4.5 mm and width of 1.6-1.8 mm. Sacciolepis interrupta is a C4, grass weed having fibrous root system, and stems were erect or leaning with creeping or geniculate habit. Nodes were glabrous with roots at lower nodes. Leaves were lanceolate; either glabrous or sparsely pilose. The plant height varied from 70 to 112 cm, and inflorescence was an erect, compact, terminal panicle, about 8 to 30 cm long, of either interrupted or spiciform type. The spikelets were ovate or lanceolate, either green or green with violet variegations and about 2.1 to 4.8 mm long. The flowers of S. interrupta were violet or purple or white in colour. The seeds were very small, oval to oblong in shape, light brown to dark brown in colour, and 1000 seed weight varied from 2.2 g to 4.2 g. Germination studies revealed that seeds of S. interrupta were dispersed with high levels of induced dormancy and were able to germinate both in upland as well as flooded conditions. Seed germination was strongly influenced by seasonal variations in temperature and light. Higher temperatures of 330C to 380C with continuous light of 14 hours triggered germination. Seeds placed on soil surface and at 2 cm depth had higher rate of germination and emergence. Seed longevity studies revealed prolonged seed persistence of upto one year. A persistent seed bank due to secondary dormancy favoured the periodic reappearance of species and increase in the soil seed bank. Different methods of propagation i.e., by seeds, culm cuttings and root clumps were observed. High regeneration capacity of different plant parts promoted its survival and spread. Field experiments were conducted in 2017 and 2019 at Chithali, Palakkad in a farmers’ field where the infestation of Sacciolepis was very high. Different pre- and post-emergence herbicides and integrated methods were tested for management of S. interrupta. The pre-emergence herbicide treatments included oxyflourfen, pretilachlor, pendimethalin, oxadiargyl, stale seedbed for 14 days, hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS, and unweeded control. Hand weeding was the most efficient method for control of S. interrupta. Stale seedbed was found to give efficient control of the weed by depleting the soil seed bank. Among pre-emergence herbicides, oxyfluorfen @ 0.15 kg/ha and oxadiargyl @ 0.10 kg/ha were found effective, however, weed control lasted only upto 30 DAS. The post-emergence treatments included cyhalofop-butyl, bispyribac sodium, penoxsulam, fenoxaprop–p–ethyl, two commericial pre-mix formulations triafamone + ethoxysulfuron and cyhalofop-butyl+ penoxsulam, hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS, and unweeded control. Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 0.06 kg/ha and cyhalofop-butyl @ 0.08 kg/ha was found to be better post-emergence herbicides, resulting in improved yield attributes and grain yield of 2299 kg/ha and 1983 kg/ha respectively. Integrated weed management treatments included stale seed bed + fenoxaprop–p–ethyl, stale seed bed + cyhalofop-butyl, stale seed bed + hand weeding, oxyfluorfen + fenoxaprop–p–ethyl, oxyfluorfen + cyhalofop-butyl, oxyfluorfen + hand weeding @ 45 DAS, hand weeding at 20 and 45 DAS and unweeded control. Stale seed bed followed by hand weeding at 45 DAS or pre-emergence application of oxyfluorfen @ 0.15 kg/ha followed by hand weeding at 45 DAS, could be recommended as an integrated method for control of S. interrupta, as these treatments gave significantly higher weed control efficiency and resulted in high grain yields and B:C ratios of 4239 kg/ha and 1.9; 4079 kg/ha and 1.8 respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Management of high temperature stress in aerobic rice(oryaza sativa L.)(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Saravana Kumar, M; KAU; Prameela, PRice production is subject to many biotic and abiotic stresses of which rise in temperature is a crucial one in the present context of global warming. Hence, a study on management of high temperature stress in aerobic rice was taken up at the Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara with the main objective of assessing the varietal response to high temperature as well as to find out sensitivity of various growth phases of rice to elevated temperature. In two pot culture experiments conducted in the first year of study (Dec 2017- Mar 2018), selected aerobic and wetland rice varieties were exposed to temperature 2-3 ℃ higher than ambient air temperature at different growth phases. A field experiment to study the effect of nitrogen and potassium nutrition in mitigating high temperature stress was carried out in second year of study during Jan 2019 – April 2019. Four aerobic rice varieties [Swarnaprabha, Sharada (MAS 946-1), Vaishakh and MDU-6] were included in Experiment I and four wetland rice varieties (Kanchana, Jyothi, Uma and Aiswarya) were tested in Experiment II. Temperature stress (2-3 ℃ above ambient) was artificially imposed at three different growth stages of rice i.e., from tillering to panicle initiation, panicle initiation to flowering and flowering to maturity. For imposing temperature stress, portable chambers with the dimensions of 2 m x 2 m x 1.5 m with top covered with UV stabilized polythene sheet and sides covered with polythene sheet, were fabricated (Singh, 2010) leaving a gap of 15cm from the ground level at the base for free air passage. Each variety was maintained under ambient condition throughout the crop growth period as control (i.e., without stress). High temperature during vegetative phase enhanced the growth parameters in all varieties. Among rice varieties, Vaishakhh and Aiswarya exposed to stress from tillering to panicle initiation (PI) showed increased plant height, tiller number, leaf area index and dry matter production compared to stress at other stages and control. Earliness in flowering was observed when stress was imposed from tillering to PI stage in all varieties and they produced higher number of panicles under ambient temperature compared to elevated temperature condition. It was found that in varieties Sharada and Aiswarya, comparable number of productive tillers was seen when stress was imposed at various growth phases compared to plants grown under ambient condition. The highest number of filled grains per panicle in both aerobic and wetland rice varieties were recorded under ambient condition. The highest reduction in filled grains per panicle and 1000 grain weight was observed when high temperature stress was imposed from flowering to maturity and this resulted in grain yield reduction in all the varieties. At this stage the varieties Vaishakh and Aiswarya ii produced higher number of filled grains per panicle, indicating varietal suitability to high temperature. These varieties produced higher grain yield compared to other varieties when stress was imposed at this sensitive stage (Vaishakh-13.81g/hill and Aiswarya-13.35g/hill). The performance of these two varieties were superior under ambient condition also. Physiological parameters such as photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, chlorophyll content, relative water content (RWC), soluble protein, nitrate reductase activity, membrane stability index (MSI), proline and superoxide dismutase (SOD) decreased under high temperature whereas increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) content was observed. Grain yield was positively correlated with chlorophyll content, membrane stability index and soluble protein content, but negatively correlated with MDA and proline content. The varieties Vaishakh and Aiswarya showed high values of transpiration rate, soluble protein, nitrate reductase acitivity, SOD and canopy air temperature difference under high temperature compared to other varieties, which points to their tolerance to high temperature. Higher proline content was observed for Swarnaprabha, Vaishakh and Kanchana when exposed to high temperature. Variation in heat units like GDD, HTU and PTU were not significant under heat stress compared to control. The third experiment was laid out in randomized block design with six treatments which included two rice varieties Vaishakh and Aiswarya grown with three N and K2O levels (60:30 kg, 90 :45 kg , 120:60 kg N:K2O/ha). Phosphorus was applied uniformly @ 30 kg/ha to all treatments basally. High temperature stress was imposed during flowering to maturity period by using portable polythene chamber. The study revealed that increase in N and K levels from 60:30 kg N: K2O/ha to 120:60 N:K2O kg /ha resulted in increased growth and yield attributes and grain yield along with a remarkable increase in RWC, chlorophyll content and MSI. Also, application of 90 kg N and 45 kg K2O produced comparable grain yield to that of 120 kg N and 60 kg K2O/ha in both Vaishakh (2485 kg/ha) and Aiswarya (2401 kg/ha) . The increase in grain yield over recommended dose of 60:30 kg N: K2O/ha was about 20 per cent. Hence, it can be inferred that yield reduction due to high temperature stress in aerobic system of rice cultivation can be managed to some extend by nitrogen and potassium nutrition. The net return was also high with application of N: K2O @ 90:45 kg /ha when compared to 60:30 N: K2O kg/ha.ThesisItem Open Access Crop-weather-nutrient relations in cassava under drought stress(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Sreelakshmi, K.; KAU; Meera Menon, VDue to global warming the risk of environmental stresses, especially of prolonged drought, are expected to increase in the coming years. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) is a typical tropical plant with its distribution confined almost entirely to the tropical zone. The crop is sensitive to soil water deficit during the first three months after planting, and water stress during the later stages of crop growth causes reduced yield and quality of tubers. In case supplemental irrigation is not possible, some nutrients are found to play important roles in imparting drought resistance to the crop. With this background, the present investigation entitled “Crop-weather-nutrient relation in cassava under drought stress” was undertaken. Two separate experiments were conducted in the Agronomy farm of College of Horticulture Vellanikkara (10o 31’ N latitude and 76o 13’E longitude) in Thrissur District of Kerala. In experiment I, conducted in 2015-16, the response of four cassava varieties of varying durations viz..Vellayani Hraswa and Sree Vijaya of short duration and M4 and Sree Athulya of long duration, planted in May, October and December to variations in environmental conditions. In experiment II, the effect of foliar application of potassium, silicon and calcium along with major nutrients on short duration variety Vellayani Hraswa grown under drought stress was investigated in two years, viz., 2015-16 and 2016-17. The experiments were laid out in randomized block design, with net plot size of 5.4 m x 5.4 m and three replications. The crops were raised as per the package of practice recommendation of Kerala Agricultural University (KAU, 2011). In experiment I, the crops were grown under rainfed condition and were thus subjected to varying temperature, precipitation and solar radiation during the period of study. May planted crops received a total rainfall of 2450.37 mm, whereas October and December planted crops received rainfall amount of 2013.4 mm and 1781.7mm respectively. Considering the general growth habit, May and October planted crops recorded considerable greater growth compared to the December planted one. Progressive increase in plant height was observed during all the three planting seasons, with May planted varieties outperforming the other two plantings. Among the varieties, Sree Athulya a normal-duration variety and Sree Vijaya a short-duration variety were significantly taller. Leaf retention and number of leaves fallen were less for Sree Athulya planted in December planting season compared to other seasons. Among normal-duration varieties, M4 was seen to produce greater number of leaves than Sree Athulya throughout the growing period, whereas short-duration varieties Sree Vijaya and Vellayani Hraswa recorded more number of leaves only towards later stages. Values of physiological parameters were higher in May and October planted crops with high stomatal conductance and photosynthetic activity. Sree Athulya variety recorded higher crop growth rate for all the plantings. Cyanogenic glucoside content and bitterness of varieties were found to progressively increase in tubers from May to October to December plantings. For all seasons, higher yield, tuber length and girth, number of tubers and mean yield per plant were in May. Normal-duration variety Sree Athulya recorded significantly higher tuber length, tuber girth, number of tubers per plant and mean tuber weight per plant, which added to significantly greater yield per plant by the variety. Among the varieties, Sree Athulya recorded significantly higher yields followed by M4 and Sree Vijaya for all seasons, while Vellayani Hraswa recorded significantly lower yield. Sree Athulya recorded higher B:C ratio of 3.67 and 2.37 when planted in May and December plantings respectively. However, short duration variety Sree Vijaya was more profitable when planted in October. Correlation between yield and weather parameters suggested that yield influencing weather parameters at early crop establishment period were maximum temperature, minimum temperature, rainfall and relative humidity. Reduced maximum and minimum temperature, high rainfall and high relative humidity were seen to be desirable. The results placed Sree Vijaya and M4 as the most promising varieties for moisture stressed conditions followed by Sree Athulya. Even though Sree Athulya was drought tolerant and produced highest yield, qualitatively it could be regarded as only the second ordered variety since it cannot be used for edible purpose. In experiment II, field experiments were conducted with 10 treatments. The treatments consisted of the recommended package of practices (POP) for nutrients, POP along with KCl, CaCl2 and silicic acid separately and in combinations. Controls included POP with water spray and water spray alone. The total precipitation during 2015-16 was recorded to be 514.1mm. The 2016-17 cropping season experienced extreme dry condition with monthly rainfall of only 136.3 mm during the entire cropping period. Pooled analysis of data showed that combined application of nutrients as per package of practices along with KCl + CaCl2 + silicic acid (T8) had significant positive impact on plant height, leaf retention, root length, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic activity and relative leaf water content. Significantly higher HCN content in tubers was recorded in 2016-17 compared to 2015-16. The above treatment combination also resulted in significantly higher tuber girth, number of tubers, mean tuber weight and yield per hectare in 2015-16. Generally, yield of crop was comparatively low during 2016-17 cropping period due to insufficient rain. However, POP+ KCl + CaCl2 along with POP + KCl + silicic acid and POP + KCl + silicic acid + CaCl2 recorded higher fresh tuber yield. Tuber girth was highest in the treatment POP + KCl + silicic acid + CaCl2. Combination of all three nutrients along with recommended doses of N, P and K resulted in significant increase in the total uptake of primary and secondary nutrients compared to control. However nutrient uptake was limited in 2016-17. In general, foliar application of chemical treatments along with recommended package of practices were found to have a significant positive influence on cassava even under low rainfall conditions.ThesisItem Open Access Customized nutrient management for rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Southern Laterites (AEU8)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2019) Sheeba, S S; KAU; Shalini Pillai, PThe study entitled “Customized nutrient management for rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Southern Laterites (AEU 8)” was undertaken at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2016 to 2019. The main objectives were to assess and rate the available nutrient status of rice soil in the Southern Laterites (AEU 8), to develop a Zn – B mix for rice and to evaluate the effect of the mix on rice, at different N/K ratios. The study was carried out in three parts. The first part was on assessment and rating of available nutrient status of rice soil in Southern Laterites (AEU 8). Southern Laterites is spread over five blocks (Athiyannoor, Parassala, Nemom, Perumkadavila and Vellanad). Parassala, Nemom and Perumkadavila were selected for the study since paddy cultivation was observed in comparatively larger area in these blocks. One hundred and fifty, geo-referenced soil samples were collected from the rice fields during April to May 2017, at random from the 11 panchayats spread over these three blocks. The soil samples were analysed and rated for 14 soil fertility parameters and block wise digital maps were prepared with ArcGIS 10.1. Based on the nutrient index, it was observed that organic carbon, available Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Zn and B recorded low nutrient indices (< 1.5) in all the three blocks. While available N was low in Nemom and Perumkadavila, it was medium (1.5 – 2.5) in Parassala block. Available P showed high index (> 2.5) in Parassala and Perumkadavila and medium index in Nemom. While Parassala and Nemom blocks could be rated as medium with respect to available K, Perumkadavila exhibited high index for K. Available Fe and Mn were high in all the blocks. The rice soils of Southern Laterites were observed to be strongly acidic with a mean pH of 5.27 ± 0.58, normal in electrical conductivity (0.77 ± 0.31) dS m-1, low in organic carbon (0.52 ± 0.23) % and available N (263.70 ± 49.32) kg ha-1, high in available P (90.40 ± 59.78) kg ha-1 and medium in available K (228.94 ± 87.84) kg ha-1. The soils were low in available Ca (15.78 ± 4.96) mg kg-1, available Mg (5.87 ± 1.85) mg kg-1 and available S (1.34 ± 0.83) mg kg-1. Among the micronutrients tested, the rice soils exhibited deficiency of available Cu (0.44 ± 0.22) mg kg-1, Zn (0.77 ± 0.19) mg kg-1 and B (0.315 ± 0.002) mg kg-1. The second part of the study comprised development of a Zn – B mix for rice. The Zn and B requirement was calculated based on the difference between the crop requirement and Zn and B status of the soil. Crop requirement of Zn and B was computed as the product of the potential yield and whole plant nutrient composition. Accordingly, the Zn and B requirement could be calculated as 4.088 kg ha-1 and 0.738 kg ha-1 respectively. The Zn – B mix for rice was formulated by mixing zinc sulphate heptahydrate (ZnSO4.7H2O) and boric acid (H3BO3) in the ratio 4 : 1. The third part of the study was a field experiment to assess the effect of the Zn – B mix on rice, at different N/K ratios. The experiment was conducted during the second crop season (September to January) of 2017 and 2018. The experiment was located in the Chenkal panchayat of Parassala block, in a farmer’s field where Zn and B deficiency was identified from the first part of the study. The experiment was laid out in randomised block design with 13 treatments (12 + 1), replicated thrice. The treatments T1 to T4 were combinations of N/K (1.0 : 0.5) + foliar application of 0.5 % and 1.0 % Zn – B mix at maximum tillering (MT) and panicle initiation (PI) stages, T5 to T8 were N/K (1.0 : 1.0) + foliar application of 0.5 % and 1.0 % Zn – B mix at MT and PI stages, T9 to T12 were N/K (1.0 : 1.5) + foliar application of 0.5 % and 1.0 % Zn – B mix at MT and PI stages and T13 was control (KAU POP for rice). The variety used for the study was Uma (MO 16). The soil of the experimental site was sandy clay loam, strongly acidic in reaction, low in organic carbon, medium in available N and K, high in available P and deficient in available Ca, Mg, Zn and B. In all treatments except control, nutrients were applied on soil test basis. The results revealed that growth attributes were significantly influenced by N/K ratio and foliar application of Zn- B mix and the treatments were observed to be superior to control (KAU POP). Mean tiller count and leaf area index were significantly higher with N/K (1.0 : 1.5) + foliar application of 0.5 % Zn – B mix at PI stage (T10) at MT and PI stages. It was on a par with T9, T11 and T12. However, the mean total dry matter production (12356 kg ha-1) was significantly higher with T12 (N/K (1.0 : 1.5) + foliar application of 1.0 % Zn – B mix at PI stage) and was comparable with T10. Among the yield attributing characters, mean number of productive tillers m-2 (488.35) and grain weight per panicle (2.78 g) were significantly higher with T12 and were at par with T10. The treatments T10 and T12 were comparable with respect to the number of spikelets per panicle, filled grains per panicle and sterility percentage. The treatment T12 resulted in significantly higher mean grain yield (5.67 t ha-1) and was comparable with T10 (5.61 t ha-1). Straw yield was higher with T12 (6.89 t ha-1) and was on a par with T10 (6.83t ha-1). The treatments were superior to control (KAU POP), with T10 recording 43.9 per cent improvement in grain yield. Crude protein content of grain and uptake of major nutrients, Ca, Zn and B were significantly higher with T12 and was comparable with T10. Incidence of rice bug (at the milk stage) and false smut disease (at harvest) was observed during both the years. Mean benefit cost ratio was higher (1.72) with T10 and was comparable with T12 (1.69) as against a BCR of 1.16 for the KAU POP. The present study revealed that the fertility status of rice soils of the Southern Laterites (AEU 8) need to be addressed in terms of soil acidity, low organic carbon status, build-up of phosphorus and deficiency of secondary nutrients and micronutrients like Zn, B and Cu, on soil test basis. Based on the crop requirement and nutrient status of the soil, a Zn – B mix was formulated, as a mixture of zinc sulphate heptahydrate and boric acid in the ratio 4 : 1. Application of nitrogen and potassium in the ratio 1.0 : 1.5 along with foliar application of 0.5% Zn – B mix at panicle initiation stage was observed to be effective in enhancing the growth and yield attributes, yield and economics of rice in the Southern Laterites (AEU 8) of KeralaThesisItem Open Access Vetiver based Organic Mediculture Technologies for the Sustainable development of Watersheds(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2019) Ishrath, P K; KAU; Anilkumar, A SAn investigation entitled “Vetiver based organic mediculture technologies for the sustainable development of watersheds” was carried out during 2016 to 2019 at the Instructional farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The investigation comprised of three field experiments and one pot culture study. The objectives were to standardise nursery management practices for quality planting material production, develop vetiver based biological systems for soil and water conservation and to explore the phytoremediation potential of vetiver for waste water and degradable solid waste utilization. The vetiver variety “ODV-3”, turmeric variety “Varna”, cowpea variety “Bhagyalakshmi” and a local variety of greater galangal were used for the study. The techniques for quality planting material production were standardised by testing planting materials (a1- slips; a2- clumps), planting systems (b1- planting strips; b2- shallow basins), rooting medium (c1- coirpith compost: soil: cowdung (2:1:1) + inoculation with Azospirillum and AM Fungi); c2- c1 + cowdung slurry at monthly interval) and moisture regimes (d1- irrigation at 8 mm CPE; d2- irrigation at 16 mm CPE) in a 24 factorial Randomised Block Design with three replications. Conclusions were drawn after two and four months of planting. Inoculation of vetiver clumps with biofertilizers and planting in shallow basins filled with enriched rooting medium and application of cowdung slurry at monthly interval with irrigation scheduling at 16 mm CPE resulted in the production of higher number of planting materials (10.67 tillers per plant) and the highest benefit cost ratio (2.83) after two months of planting. Considering the dual benefit of planting material production and root yield, inoculation of vetiver slips with biofertilizers and planting in polythene mulched trenches, filled with enriched rooting medium followed by application of cowdung slurry at monthly interval and irrigation scheduling at 8 mm CPE resulted in the highest net income (₹.5.84 lakhs ha-1) and benefit cost ratio (2.96) after four months of planting. The study on “Vetiver based alley cropping systems for soil and water conservation” was undertaken in 32 factorial Randomised Block Design with three replications. Combinations of vetiver vegetative barriers were developed in three different planting geometries, i.e., a1- normal row planting (50 cm x 50 cm), a2- paired row planting (25/75 cm x 50 cm); a3- high density planting (25/75 cm x 25 cm) with three different sequential intercropping systems, i.e., b1- turmeric- cowpea- turmeric, b2- greater galangal and b3- control (without intercropping). High density planting of vetiver followed by continuous alley cropping of greater galangal (a3b2) resulted in the highest vetiver equivalent yield (14.44 t ha-1), net income (₹.4.05 lakhs ha-1) and benefit cost ratio (2.27). Substantial reduction in runoff (95 %), soil loss (166 %) and nutrient erosion (76 %) could be achieved through a3b2 within a period of 18 months, extending from June 2017 to December 2018. Considerable improvement in soil health with respect to physical properties of soil, viz., bulk density (33 %), porosity (28 %), water holding capacity (47 %) and infiltration rate (72 %) and build-up of soil organic carbon (43 %) were also observed in a3b2 compared to initial soil status. To develop vetiver systems for waste water utilization in agriculture, an experiment was laid out in Completely Randomised Block Design with seven types of waste water in three replications. The treatments were, a1- waste water from coconut husk retting yards, a2- kitchen waste water, a3- waste water from fish market, a4- coirpith leachate, a5-sewage water, a6- Vellayani lake water and a7- nutrient solution. Vetiver was proved as a good phytoremediator with respect to decontamination and water purification properties (nutrient and heavy metal uptake). In general, the morphological characters (number of leaves and tillers) and root characters (root weight, spread, volume and drymatter) were significantly improved by growing vetiver in fish-waste water. To explore the phytoremediation potential of vetiver for degradable solid waste utilization, a study was conducted in 4 x 2 x 2 factorial Randomised Block Design with three replications. Four ratios of degradable land fill materials (sewage sludge) and virgin soil (a1- 1:0; a2- 1:1; a3- 1:3; a4- 1:5), two crop establishment techniques (nursery grown rooted slips with enriched rooting medium (b1) and without enriched rooting medium (b2)); foliar nutrition (c1-sequential application of cow‟s urine, vermiwash and fermented plant juice; c2- sequential application of NPK fertilizer grade of 19:19:19, KNO3 and Ca(NO3)2 at monthly interval) were tested in this study. It could be concluded that, production of vetiver slips inoculated with Azospirillum and AM Fungi in enriched rooting medium and transplanting in the main field with sewage sludge and virgin soil (1:5) followed by sequential application of foliar fertilizers @ 0.50 per cent (19:19:19, KNO3 and Ca(NO3)2 ) resulted in the highest root yield (4.11 t ha-1), net income (₹.1.01 lakhs ha-1) and benefit cost ratio (1.97). Vetiver based mediculture technologies in relation to cost effective quality planting material production, alley cropping systems for soil and water conservation and phytoremediation techniques for waste water and biosolid utilization were developed for the sustainable development of watersheds.ThesisItem Open Access Bioefficacy and soil health impact of flucetosulfuron in wet seeded rice (Oryza sativa L.)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2018) Arya, S R; KAU; Elizabeth, K SyriacThe investigation entitled "Bioefficacy and soil health impact of flucetosulfuron in wet seeded rice (Oryza sativa L.) was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram during the period of 2015-2018. The objectives were to evaluate the bioefficacy of flucetosulfuron in wet seeded rice; to assess its impact on soil health by determining the microbial count, earthworm population, enzyme status and herbicide residue in soil through bioassay using indicator plant as well as to assess the weed seed bank. It was also envisaged to study the in vitro sensitivity of biofertilizer organisms and biocontrol agents to flucetosulfuron. Field experiment was conducted during the I and II crop seasons of 2016- ’17, in a farmer’s field in Kalliyoor Panchayat, Nemom block, Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala, with 12 treatments replicated thrice in Randomized Block Design. The treatments were: T1 : Flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 2-3 DAS, T2 : Flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 2-3 DAS, T3 : Flucetosulfuron @ 30 g ha-1 at 2-3 DAS, T4 : Flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS, T5 : Flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS, T6 : Flucetosulfuron @ 30 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS, T7 : Flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 18-20 DAS , T8 : Flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 18- 20 DAS , T9 : Flucetosulfuron @ 30 g ha-1 at18-20 DAS, T10: Bispyribac sodium @ 25 g ha-1 at 15 DAS, T11: Hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS and T12 : Weedy check. The short duration variety Kanchana was used for the trial. The weed flora in the experimental field comprised of four species of grasses, six species of broad leaved weeds and three species of sedges. Based on density and dry weight, sedges were the predominant group in the experimental field followed by broad leaved weeds and grasses. Application of flucetosulfuron @ 20, 25 and 30g ha-1 at 10-12 and 18-20 DAS (T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 and T9) recorded lower total weed density, total weed dry weight and nutrient removal by weeds and higher total weed control efficiency and were on par with the hand weeding treatment (T11). Yield reduction due to weeds was found to be 52.33 and 55.61 per cent during the I and II crop seasons respectively. The highest grain yield was recorded by the application of flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS (T5) and flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS (T4) during the first and second crop seasons respectively. The same trend was observed in the case of dry matter production also. Pooled analysis of the grain yield for the two seasons indicated the superiority of T5 which recorded the highest grain yield of 8.33 t ha-1. This treatment was on par with the other levels of flucetosulfuron viz., 20 and 30 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS (T4 and T6) and hand weeding treatment (T11). Higher yield attributes, harvest index and nutrient uptake were also recorded for these treatments. However, net income and B:C ratio were significantly lower for hand weeding treatment. Herbicide application did not cause any significant inhibitory effect on the earthworm population and spider count. Application of herbicides increased the microbial population in herbicide treated plots. Flucetosulfuron, at the tested doses (20, 25 and 30 g ha-1) and time of application (2-3, 10-12 and 18-20 DAS), did not show any adverse impact on the activity of soil enzymes (dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase and urease) and soil organic carbon status. To identify the most suitable indicator plant for assessing flucetosulfuron residue in soil, four separate pot culture experiments were conducted using barnyard millet, cucumber, sunflower and maize. Sunflower was identified as the most sensitive indicator plant and shoot length of sunflower was adjudged as the best parameter to assess the flucetosulfuron residue in soil. Bioassay after each field experiment using sunflower revealed that there was no residual toxicity of flucetosulfuron in the post experiment soil. Pot culture experiments were carried out before and after each field experiment, to study the weed seed bank dynamics. Results revealed that non- herbicidal plots recorded higher weed count compared to herbicide applied plots. In all the herbicide treated plots, effective reduction in weed seed bank could be obtained irrespective of the dose of the herbicide. Regarding the time of application, application of flucetosulfuron at 10-12 and 18-20 DAS caused significant depletion of weed seed bank during both the seasons compared to its application at 2-3 DAS. In vitro sensitivity of biofertilizer organisms viz., Azospirillum lipoferum, Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium and Frateuria aurantia to flucetosulfuron indicated that growth of none of the organisms were significantly inhibited by the tested doses of flucetosulfuron. Similarly, in vitro sensitivity to biocontrol agent Trichoderma viride revealed that, at all the tested concentrations of flucetosulfuron, it showed a colony diameter of 9 mm uniformly with zero per cent inhibition indicating the compatibility of the herbicide. The compatibility studies with Pseudomonas fluorescens also revealed the safety of the herbicide. The present study revealed that application of flucetosulfuron @ 20, 25 and 30 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS was very effective in controlling the weeds and recorded significantly higher grain yield and monetary benefits in wet seeded rice. Application of flucetosulfuron @ 20, 25 and 30 g ha-1 at 2-3/10-12/18-20 DAS had no adverse impact on soil health and was found compatible with the tested biofertilizer organisms (Azospirillum lipoferum, Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium and Frateuria aurantia) and biocontrol agents (Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens).ThesisItem Open Access Agro techniques in bhindi for precision farming(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2019) Ammu Punnoose; KAU; Sajitha Rani, TThe investigation entitled “Agro techniques in bhindi for precision farming” was conducted during 2016 to 2019 at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The objectives were to standardize the spacing and response of bio inoculants for bhindi under rain shelter and open field conditions and to evaluate the effect of fertigation and foliar nutrition on improving the growth, yield and quality of bhindi and to work out the economics of different cultivation systems. The first experiment was to standardise the spacing and bio inoculants suitable for the cultivation of bhindi under rain shelter and open field conditions. A field experiment was conducted using the variety Varsha Uphar, during May to August- 2017. The treatments consisted of three spacings (S1 - 60 cm x 30 cm, S2- 60 cm x 45 cm and S3 - 60 cm x 60 cm) as first factor and three bio inoculant treatments (B1- Bio inoculant- PGPR mix 1, B2 - Bio inoculant - Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, B3 - No Bio inoculant) as second factor. The experiment was carried out in RBD with three replications. Under both open and rain shelter conditions, taller plants were obtained with closer spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm whereas, numbers of leaves and branches per plant, tap root length and root volume were significantly higher at wider spacing (60 cm x 60 cm). Among the bio inoculants, application of PGPR mix 1 resulted in significantly taller plants, more number of leaves and branches at all growth stages and longer tap root and root volume at final harvest. LAI was found to be significant among spacings at 60 and 90 DAT under open field condition. Yield attributes like number of flowers and fruits per plant, length of fruit, weight of fruit and weight of fruits per plant were found to be significantly higher at 60 cm x 60 cm and inoculation with PGPR mix 1. Wider spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm along with PGPR mix 1 was found to be superior to the other combinations with respect to growth and yield attributes. Fruit yield was significantly influenced by spacing and bio inoculant application and was higher at 60 cm x 30 cm (17.03 t ha-1 under rain shelter and 14.07 t ha-1 under open field condition) and PGPR mix 1 (16.83 t ha-1 under rain shelter and 13.50 t ha-1 under open field condition). Their interaction was also found to be significant (18.78 t ha-1 under rain shelter and 16.36 t ha-1 under open field condition) under both conditions. Dry matter production was significantly higher for 60 cm x 30 cm spacing and PGPR mix 1. Crop growth rate (CGR) was significantly higher at 60 cm x 30 cm and PGPR mix 1 under rain shelter and open field condition. Among the spacings, 60 cm x 60 cm and among bio inoculants, PGPR mix 1 were found superior with respect to relative growth rate (RGR) under both conditions. Among the fruit quality aspects, significant difference was observed for protein content inside rain shelter. NPK uptake showed an increasing trend with decreased plant to plant spacing. Application of PGPR mix 1 resulted in higher nutrient uptake. Available P status of soil after the experiment was significantly higher for 60 cm x 60 cm spacing under rain shelter. AMF treated soil showed significantly higher available P under open field condition. Available K was significantly higher for 60 cm x 60 cm spacing and PGPR mix 1 under rain shelter and open field condition. Higher bacterial and actinomycetes population were found in 60 cm x 30 cm spacing and PGPR mix 1 under both conditions. Higher fungal population was observed in AMF treated soil. Significantly higher water use efficiency was observed with 60 cm x 30 cm spacing and PGPR mix 1 and their interaction under rain shelter and open field condition. Net return and B: C ratio were also higher at 60 cm x 30 cm spacing (B: C ratio of 1.76 under rain shelter and 1.63 under open field) and PGPR mix1 (B: C ratio of 1.75 under rain shelter and 1.58 under open field) and their interaction under both condition (B: C ratio of 1.94 under rain shelter and 1.90 under open field). The first experiment revealed that growing bhindi at a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm along with seedling inoculation with PGPR mix 1 resulted higher yield, and profit under rain shelter and open field condition The second experiment for standardization of nutrient schedule of bhindi under rain shelter and open field condition was conducted during September to December, 2017 and May to August, 2018. The best treatments from the first experiment were used for this trial. The trial was laid out in split plot design with five replications. The main plot treatments consisted of four levels of fertigation; 50 % adhoc POP recommendation for precision farming (F1), 75 % adhoc POP recommendation for precision farming (F2), 100 % adhoc POP recommendation for precision farming (F3), 125 % adhoc POP recommendation for precision farming (F4) and the sub plot treatments consisted of two foliar levels; poly feed fertilizer (19:19:19 at 0.5 %) (L1) and nano NPK (4: 4: 4 at 0.3 %) (L2). The variety used for the experiment was Varsha Uphar. Growth characters such as plant height, number of leaves per plant, number of branches per plant, LAI at monthly intervals, tap root length and root volume at harvest were significantly higher for the fertigation level F3 and foliar application of L1 under rain shelter, and F4 and L1 under open field condition. Yield attributes viz., number of flowers and fruits per plant, fruit set percentage, length of fruit, fruit weight, total fruit weight per plant, and yield per hectare were higher for the fertigation level of F3 and was on par with F4 and foliar level of L1 under rain shelter. Under open field condition, regarding yield attributes, fertigation level of F4 was on par with F3 and foliar level of L1 was significantly higher than L2. Considering the interaction, under rain shelter, f3 l1 recorded higher fruit yield per hectare and under open field condition, interaction of f4 l1 was on par with f3l1. CGR, RGR and NAR recorded by F4 and F3 were comparable and among the foliar levels, L1 was found to be significantly higher under both conditions. Under both growing conditions, higher chlorophyll content was observed under the fertigation level F4. Chlorophyll content was significantly higher with L2. Under rain shelter, F3 and L1 recorded higher dry matter production. Under open field condition, the highest dry matter production was recorded by F4 was on par with F3 among the fertigation levels and L1 among the foliar levels. Fruit quality parameters were significantly higher at F4 and L2 under both conditions. Higher NPK uptake was found for F3 and F4 under rain shelter and open field condition respectively. Available nutrients in the soil after the experiment showed an increasing trend with increasing fertigation levels under both conditions. Higher fertigation level (F4) resulted in higher microbial count under both conditions. Foliar level with L2 resulted in higher microbial count inside rain shelter. Higher water use efficiency was recorded for F3 and L1 under rain shelter and F4 and L1 under open field condition. Highest net return and B: C ratio was obtained for F3 (B: C ratio of 2.05 during Sept-Dec, 2017 and 2.12 during May- Aug, 2018) and was on par with F4 (B: C ratio of 1.93 during Sept –Dec, 2017 and 2.11 during May – Aug, 2018) among the fertigation levels under rain shelter. Under open field condition, F4 (B: C ratio of 1.64 during Sept -Dec, 2017 and 2.03 during May- Aug, 2018) was on par with F3 (B: C ratio of 1. 60 during Sept –Dec, 2017). Among the foliar levels, L1 recorded the highest B: C ratio under both growing conditions. The study revealed that growing bhindi at a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm and seedling inoculation with PGPR mix 1 resulted in higher yield and profit under rain shelter and open field conditions. Nutrient scheduling of 98: 25: 136 kg NPK ha-1 (100 % Adhoc POP recommendation) along with foliar application of poly feed (19:19:19) at 0.5 % at fortnightly intervals enhanced the growth, yield and profit under rain shelter condition. Fertilizer dose of 122: 31: 170 kg NPK ha-1 (125 % Adhoc POP recommendation) or 98: 25: 136 kg NPK ha-1 (100 % Adhoc POP recommendation) with foliar application of poly feed (19:19:19) at 0.5 % at fortnightly intervals was beneficial for open field condition. Application of 125 % Adhoc POP recommendation along with foliar spray of nano NPK at 0.3 % at fortnightly intervals improved the fruit quality under both conditions.
