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ThesisItem Open Access Utilization of soil health card by the farmers of Thrissur district(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Reshmi, S; KAU; Binoo Bonny, P.Injudicious and hazardous use of chemical fertilizer in agriculture is a matter of concern in recent times. In order to avoid deterioration of soil in the long run and visualizing the importance of balanced nutrition in crop production, Government of India launched the soil health (SHC) programme in 2015. The Soil Health Card provides appropriate guidance to the farmers for the efficient use of fertilizer for crops based on soil health analysis. The SHC is a printed document, which contains data on soil test based chemical analysis to describe soil health in terms of its nutrient availability and its physical and chemical properties. The study was carried out in Thrissur district as it had the maximum number of SHC scheme beneficiaries in the State. A total of 180 respondents from the district formed the sample which constituted 150 farmers and 30 scheme implementing officers. Status of SHC use among farmers revealed the presence of four categories of SHC users viz. participant SHC scheme users, participant SHC scheme non-users, paid SHC users and non-participant non-users. Analysis of the socio-economic variables between the different categories of users and non-users of farmers revealed that the variables, farming experience, exposure to training and irrigation facility showed significant difference among the respondents at 0.05 and 0.01 levels with p values 0.040, 0.016 and 0.001 respectively. With regard to awareness on SHC, Paid SHC users had an overall awareness score of 461.52. On all selected awareness domains they had uniformly high scores except on general information on SHC scheme wherein the score was only 78.00 per cent. Regarding the spread of SHC in Thrisssur district, Chavakkad was the only block that covered more than 50 per cent of farmers. Extent of adoption measured using adoption index, and the results indicated that 50 per cent of the participant SHC scheme users were of medium adoption category, followed by 34 per cent of low adopters and only 16 per cent belonged to the high adoption category. However, in XXXII the case of paid soil test users, it could be inferred that majority of the farmers (60 per cent), came under high adoption category, followed by 33 per cent under medium level of adoption and only 7 per cent belonged to low adoption category. Correlation between the independent variables and adoption of SHC recommendations by participant SHC scheme users and paid SHC users revealed that, irrigation facility and farming experience showed positively significant correlation with adoption at 0.05 level for both the categories. It is also important to find that when scientific orientation recorded positive and significant relation with adoption at 0.01 level for both participant SHC scheme users and paid SHC users, training and education showed significant relation only for the paid SHC users at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance respectively. When 90 per cent of the paid SHC users showed favourable perception regarding the reliability of SHCs, only 40 per cent of the participant SHC scheme users displayed a favourable utility perception on the domain. With regard to the quantity of fertilizers (Urea, SSP, MOP) applied, and micronutrient use, there is significant difference between users and non-users with p values 0.44 and 0.017 respectively. Results of binary logistic regression of SHC users and non-users with socioeconomic variables and yield taken as independent variables revealed that a change in the level of education, farming experience, irrigation or yield could bring a corresponding chance of 64, 30, 31 and 67 per cent respectively for a non-user to become a user of SHC results. Majority of farmers (68 per cent) stated that the time gap between soil collection and distribution of cards was too long. The major constraint stated by officers was unavailability of field staffs for taking samples (68.23 per cent). Though the services were free under the scheme, farmers face a lot of impediments in getting full benefits of the scheme. It is suggested that the policy makers should conduct suitable awareness programs and trainings to promote the usage of soil health cards. Follow-up by extension agency, timely reporting of soil test results to farmers is crucial in whole programme. Effective utilization of the scheme also needs the presence of field level experts to clear doubts of farmers at the time of their need in a scientific way.ThesisItem Open Access Entrepreneurial behaviour of Hi-Tech farmers in Kerala(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Shilpa, Karat; KAU; Smitha, BabyThe conventional farming system in Kerala witnessed a path breaking change in the recent years with the adoption of hi-tech farming, which is a promising venture for the educated youth and part time farmers who are progressively attracted to agriculture. Keeping in view of this increasing acceptance of hi-tech farming, Kerala State Agriculture Development and Farmers Welfare Department has initiated many programs to promote protected cultivation and precision farming in the state. However, the success of hi-tech farming is determined by crucial aspects such as the entrepreneurial attributes and marketing behavior of the farmer. With this background, the present study was undertaken to analyse the entrepreneurial and marketing behavior of the hi-tech farmers, their linkages with other sectors, constraints faced by them along with a SWOC analysis of the hi-tech farming sector. The results of the study would be greatly helpful for the policy makers, government and extension workers in formulating plans for hi-tech farming sector in Kerala. A total of 60 hi-tech farmers, 30 each of polyhouse and open precision were selected from Trissur and Palakkad districts through multistage sampling method. Entrepreneurial behavior was quantified using Entrepreneurial Behavior Index. The index was found to be higher (68.98) for open precision farmers compared to that of polyhouse farmers (64.87). Indices were formed separately for each of the nine selected dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior viz., innovativeness, decision making ability, achievement motivation, risk taking ability, planning ability, cosmopoliteness, self-confidence and information seeking behavior. Information seeking behavior gained highest index for both polyhouse and open precision farmers. Further, Mann-Whitney U test was performed to ascertain significance of the difference between two groups and it was found that the two groups were significantly different in their entrepreneurial behavior with respect to decision making ability, achievement motivation and self-confidence. The marketing behavior of hi-tech famers was studied for polyhouse and open precision farmers. The components selected were marketed surplus, marketing channels, distance to market, mode of transport, price satisfaction, access to market information, access to storage and post-harvest handling or value addition. Since 12 of the 30 polyhouse farmers had quit commercial production, only 18 polyhouse farmers were considered in studying the marketing behavior. The results of Discriminant Function Analysis revealed that there was significant XXV discrimination in marketing behavior of polyhouse and open precision farmers, particularly with respect to marketed surplus and distance to the market. The study also revealed that the hi-tech farmers had different types of backward linkages but their forward linkages were limited to linkages for market information and finance for marketing and did not have any kind of forward linkage with processing industries. The major constraints faced by the polyhouse farmers were technical and financial in nature, namely, lack of knowledge on repair and maintenance, inadequate skilled labor, low income and inadequate guidance on production. The open precision farmers also faced technical and financial constraints such as high cost of infrastructure, repair and maintenance and lack of services for repair and maintenance. Inadequate access to post-harvest handling and processing facilities was found to be the major constraint in marketing for both polyhouse and open precision farmers. SWOC analysis was conducted separately for the polyhouse and open precision farmers. It was found that the primary strength, weakness, opportunity and challenge in polyhouse farming were cultivation of unconventional crops that can fetch higher price in market, lack of knowledge on repair and maintenance, popularization of unconventional crops and limited sources of inputs in local markets respectively while that of open precision farmers were higher input use efficiency, high cost of infrastructure, large scale production to achieve self-sufficiency and difficulties in attaining new markets respectively. The hi-tech farming sector can be uplifted by providing better training and consultancy services to the farmers as the results showed strong correlation between their entrepreneurial behavior and extension contact. Trainings can enhance their technical know-how to generate skilled labor in the hi-tech farming sector. The linkages of the farmers with processing industries has to be strengthened to substantially increase the income of farmers and prevent losses.ThesisItem Open Access Technology assessment of plant protection practices of economically dominant crops in homegardens(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2015) Sujitha, P S; KAU; Seema, BThe study entitled “Technology assessment of plant protection practices of economically dominant crops in homegardens’' conducted in the Thiruvanathapuram district of Kerala state covering 100 homegardens having an area more than 25 cents were selected from five Agroecological units (AEU) viz.. Southern coastal plains, Southern central laterites, Southern high hills, Southern central foothills and Southern laterites. Twenty operational homegardens from each of the five panchayats belonging to the selected AEUs were chosen making the total sample size to 100 respondents. Delineation of economically dominant crops in homegardens, levels of adoption of selected KALJ plant protection practices, technology need assessment, constraints in adoption of plant protection practices and suggestions as perceived by the farmers were the major objectives of the study. The independent variables selected through judges rating were age, education, occupation, effective homegarden area, family size, farming experience, information source utilization, rational orientation, extension participation, knowledge, evaluative perception on sustainability of plant protection practices and economic motivation. The independent variable selected was adoption of selected KAU plant protection practices. The economically dominant crops identified were coconut, banana, tapioca, pepper, vegetables, yams and colacasia and arecanut respectively in the homegardens. The overall level of adoption of selected plant protection practices showed that majority (70%) of the respondents had medium level of adoption followed by 16% having high level and 14% low level of adoption. The adopter category curve delineated for the overall adoption showed that 45% of the respondents fell under early majority followed late majority (21%), laggards (16%), early adopters (14%), with no innovators. Differences in adopter categories were observed for different crops. Age, information source utilization and extension participation were found to have significant positive relationship with the dependent variable adoption of selected plant protection practices of KAU. In coconut, banana, tapioca and arecanut ease in operation was perceived as the most preferred plant protection criteria in homegardens. The result showed that 45% of the farmers found the preferred KAU plant protection practices to be useful however only 40% of the respondents felt it effective. Of the 17 ITK plant protection practices, four were specific to vegetables and banana each. Two were specific to plant protection of coconut and six of general practices. Major constraints identified were, plant protection chemicals not effective in their recommended dosage, followed by climatic influence on pest and incidence and non availability of plant protection chemicals. Suggested refinement in plant protection technology as perceived by the homegarden farmers were in generating of ecofriendly and organic plant protection measures that are suitable for homegardens followed by timely availability of plant protection inputs and generation of more pest and disease resistant varieties.ThesisItem Open Access Impact of the rice variety,Uma (Mo16) on farmers(Department of Agricultural Extension College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2015) Neshva; KAU; Sakeer, HusainRice is the staple food of the people of Kerala, and traditionally, the cultivation of rice has occupied pride of place in the agrarian economy of the state. Palakkad and Alappuzha are the two major rice-producing districts of Kerala. About 600 varieties of rice were grown in the sprawling paddy fields of Kerala. One of the most popular rice varieties of Kerala is Uma (Mo.16) developed by the Rice Research Station, Moncompu of Kerala Agricultural University and it occupies more than 60 percent of the paddy cultivation area in Kuttanad region. The study intended to analyse the attributes of the rice variety, Uma (Mo16) vis-a-vis other rice varieties as perceived by farmers and to assess the socio economic impact of Uma on rice cultivating farmers. The study was confined to Kuttanad tract of Alappuzha. An ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. Five padasekharams were selected through simple random sampling method, and from each padasekharam, 20 farmers cultivating the rice variety, Uma were selected, thus constituting a sample size of 100. A pretested structured interview schedule and PRA techniques were employed for data collection. The results revealed that tolerance to pests and diseases was ranked first with an index of 94.60 followed by non-lodging nature of plant (92.60), non-shattering nature of panicle (86.70), amenability to mechanisation (75.40), millers’ preference (49.60) and cooking quality (42.00). Varietal comparison of other rice varieties prevalent in Kuttanad area with ‘Uma’ using PRA technique revealed that ‘Uma’ was perceived as the superior variety with a score of 520.42 followed by Jyothi (443.95) and Prathyasa (418.72). Results of SWOC analysis done using PRA techniques, revealed that among the strengths, ‘high yield’ ranked first with an index of 98.80 followed by ‘tolerance against pest and disease incidence’ (96.00), ‘high grain weight’ (91.00), ‘high tillering capacity’ (89.00) and ‘high seed dormancy’ (85.2). However, low cooking quality (96.10) and less preference of the rice variety by millers (94.2) were emerged as the major weaknesses. It was, also found that all the respondents were continuously cultivating ‘Uma’ without any varietal shift. Majority (56 per cent) of the farmers had been continuously cultivating the rice variety, Uma for the past 15-17 years. With regard to the social impact on farmers, it was revealed that social participation has improved significantly. Similarly, information seeking behaviour has also increased positively, where as labour use has decreased significantly. However, there was no significant change in the communication behaviour of farmers. As regards economic impact, ‘annual income’, ‘family expenditure’, ‘savings’ and ‘asset creation’ of farmers have increased significantly after cultivation of the rice variety, Uma as compared to pre-Uma period. Indebtedness of farmers was also found to have decreased. Thus, the rice variety Uma could make a very promising impact on the socio- economic variables of farmers. Regarding comparative income advantage of Uma, it was found that this variety had an income advantage of Rs.38000/- per ha over the variety, Jyothi and Rs.95000/- per ha over local varieties. Thus, for a single puncha season, Uma had given an additional income of Rs.104.30 crores as compared to Jyothi and Rs.260.75 crores as compared to local varieties, in Kuttanad tract of Alappuzha alone. With regard to constraints faced by Kuttanad farmers, ‘non-availability of labour’ was ranked first with an index of 98.60 followed by ‘high cost of inputs’ like fertilizers and pesticides (89.60), ‘vagaries of weather and climatic conditions’ (81.20) and ‘non fixing of floor price on time’ (70.80ThesisItem Open Access Tools and services for m-extension: problems and prospects(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Nagam Kusuma, Kumari; KAU; Sakeer Husain, AInformation and Communication Technology (ICT) has now become an integral part of the development process. Mobile phones added speed to the ICT revolution by converging the services to create, store, access and share information anytime and anywhere making them all-in-one magical device. It has become such an integral part of everyday life that it estimated 7 billion subscriptions (International Telecommunication Union, 2016) i.e. 95 per cent of the world’s population. Rapid growth of mobile telephony and the development of mobile phone applications offer services to users that extend well beyond voice and text communications, which can effectively be utilized by the extension personnel for information dissemination and transfer of technology. Utilizing such new applications and services on mobile phones helps the extension personnel for speedy, accurate and timely supply of information to the farmers in various aspects related to agriculture and allied sectors. The present study attempted to analyse the awareness, extent of knowledge, extent of utilization and satisfaction of extension personnel on m-tools. It also explored the constraints perceived by the agricultural extension personnel in using m-tools and formulated strategies for effective m-extension in Kerala. The study was conducted among 150 agricultural extension personnel selected randomly from five districts; which were selected from five agro-climatic zones of Kerala. Data were collected by using pre tested-structured interview schedule. Contemporary mobile apps in agriculture suited to Indian conditions were identified based on ratings, and after downloading them, they were analysed for its contents on the specific information provided by them. Accordingly they were catalogued. The personal profile of the agricultural extension personnel revealed that 53.3 per cent were under middle age category ranging from 35-45 years. It was found that a greater proportion (63.3%) of the respondents were female. With regards to their educational status, more than half (56%) of them possessed a degree as their basic education whereas with reference to agricultural education, 32 per cent had done a certificate course in agriculture followed by 31.3 per cent with B.Sc. (Ag/Horti) graduation. Exactly 31.4 per cent of them had more than 15 years of experience as extension personnel in the State Department of Agriculture. In case of adopting new technologies majority (40%) of the extension personnel were found as imitators, which revealed that they preferred to take their own time to adopt new technologies. Majority of the extension personnel showed medium level of attitude towards m-tools (77.4%) and medium level of occupational commitment (71.3%). The ICT profile of the extension personnel revealed that 64.7 per cent of them had not attended any e-literacy training programmes whereas cent per cent had not attended mliteracy trainings. Mobile phone was the most frequently used gadget as it was owned by cent per cent of the extension personnel. Internet connectivity was good and sufficient for accessing various m-tools which secured a mean score of 3.54. Most (84%) of the extension personnel were aware of Kisan Call Centre when compared to other m-tools. In case of extent of utilisation, most of the respondents were not making use of m-tools but those who were making use of them showed a good satisfaction level. Among the constraints perceived by the extension personnel in using m-tools, unavailability of user friendly m-apps in Malayalam language was identified as the major constraint followed by non-availability of mobile phone networks in rural areas, lack of exposure to m-education among extension personnel, low level of e-readiness by the extension personnel/organizations and so on. Majority (82%) of the extension personnel opined that m-apps were necessary for effective extension work and the information required by them through m-tools comprised of information on pest and disease identification and control measures, location specific weather and marketing aspects, availability of quality inputs and so on. In order to facilitate effective m-extension in Kerala, there is urgent necessity for organising e-literacy and m-literacy training programmes. Similarly there is a need to modify the G.O. No. 14409/R2/2011/P& ARD which stated a restriction on the use of mobile phone in work place. Mobile voice messages to language minorities focus on developing user friendly apps in Malayalam, providing official smart phones to extension personnel, exposure of extension personnel on m-education and policy level decisions to make the agricultural extension organisations e-ready are some of the strategies to be considered for effective mextension in Kerala.ThesisItem Open Access Innovations in e-agricultural extension technology (e-AET): diffusion and adoption of agri-expert systems among extension professionals in Kerala(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2014) Modem, Ravikishore; KAU; Allah, ThomasThe present study entitled 'Innovations in e-Agricultural Extension Technology (e-AET): Diffusion and adoption of agri-expert systems among extension professionals in Kerala' was conducted at Thiruvananthapuram district during 2012-2014 covering 100 extension professionals. Expert systems allows the use and application of information technology and communications technology (lCT's) to access and obtain information related to agricultural production, marketing, distribution, and prices, and the results of agricultural research, innovations, to raise the level of agricultural production and benefit the farming community. The present study, therefore, is with the objective to conduct a systematic appraisal of existing expert systems in agriculture vis a vis their diffusion among the extension professionals. The findings demonstrate that most of the extension professionals either in State Department, NGO or University have positive attitudes towards expert system. Age, training, innovativeness, retrievability, relevancy, format clarity, information content, availability, accuracy and timeliness affect extension professionals' attitudes. Based on respondent's stage in the adopter categorisation with reference to expert systems, it was found that 10 per cent of the sampled respondents belonged to innovators category, 19 per cent respondents belonged to early adopters' category, 32 per cent respondents belonged to early majority category, 24 per cent respondents belonged to late majority category and 15 per cent respondents belonged to laggards' category. Effectiveness index of expert system applications was worked out using seven statements and the results showed that pedagogy (as a means to effective learning through expert system) having highest effectiveness index. The findings demonstrate that most of the respondents belonged to middle age category, holding with master degrees; attended training on lCT. It was also found that most of the respondents having high innovativeness and accessibility, forinat clarity and information content of the expert system perceived as high. Availability, retrievability, relevancy, timeliness, accuracy and effectiveness index of expert system perceived as medium by the respondents. Hence, the study undoubtedly exhibited affirmative reaction from all three categories of respondents on the applications of expert systems in the field of agriculture, because local information resource centers are gaining importance with computers carrying expert systems to help fanners to make decisions.ThesisItem Open Access Effectiveness of training for facilitators of people's rural education movement (PREM)(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2015) Remya, M; KAU; Alexander GeorgeWith financial sponsorship from Axis Bank Foundation, Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) conducted a series of training programmes for the facilitators of People’s Rural Education Movement (PREM) from May 2011 to July 2014. PREM is an NGO working for the upliftment of the tribal belt in Odisha. This study had three specific objectives: (1) To evaluate the effectiveness of the training for facilitators of the PREM (2) To make a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Constraints (SWOC) analysis of KAU’s training capability and (3) To suggest ways and means of improving training activity of the KAU. Ninety randomly selected trainees and 10 stakeholders representing officials of PREM, Axis Bank Foundation, resource persons and members of the Expert Review Team constituted the sample. Ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. Data collection was carried out using mailed questionnaires and personal interview method. Secondary data available in the pre and post-training documents, the report of the Expert Review Team and specific cases of actual back home utility were also extensively used. Profile parameters of the respondents were documented and subsequent findings of the study reveal that high percentages of respondents fully adopted the practices learned at the training: organic and eco-friendly farming practices (89%), integrated pest and disease management (76%) and improved animal husbandry practices (74%). The percentages of respondents who partially adopted the practices taught were as follows: vermi-composting/medicinal plants and fruit crops/bee keeping/mushroom production/nursery management (80%); processing and value addition techniques (59%). However, nearly 50 per cent of respondents did not adopt farm mechanization. The training was perceived as rigorous by most of the respondents (80%). Wilcoxon signed rank test revealed that invariably all the respondents had gained knowledge through the training. That 52 per cent of respondents perceived that the knowledge gained in the training had applicability in their circumstances and 85 per cent of respondents perceived the training was helpful to their day-to-day work stands to validate the design element in conduct of the training. Majority (93%) of the respondents had opportunity to share information gained through training to others implying that the training impact went beyond the trainees. Invariably all the trainees had their expectations met and rated training useful for them at medium level. Correlation results show that land owned, land cultivated, extension agency and farming experience had a positive and significant relationship with adoption. Orientation towards scientific and modern agricultural practices and gender had a negative and significant relationship with training rigour. Orientation towards scientific and modern agricultural practices had a negative and significant relationship with knowledge gained through training. Kruskal Wallis one-way Anova results indicate that there was no significant difference between the respondents who attended training in different years 2011-12, 2012-13 and 2013-14. Level of aspiration and perceived applicability of knowledge gained was significantly higher for the respondents who attended the training thrice. Kendall’s co-efficient of concordance showed that mushroom production technology as the most useful topic covered in training followed by bee keeping, making of ecofriendly products and tissue culture as the least useful topic. Topics perceived by the respondents as most important for necessary inclusion in future training programmes were medicinal plants, fish culture, tissue culture lab visit, mango cultivation, cashew apple processing and rubber cultivation. Seven strategic options arrived through SWOC analysis of KAU’s training capability were (1) undertake batch specific training need analysis (2) ensure highly effectual transfer of knowledge, attitude and skills (3) provide HRD training for support staff and Quality Improvement Programs for resource persons of KAU (4) enhance the number of resource persons and support staff (5) improve boarding and transportation facilities (6) develop e-training facilities and (7) focus on crop specific input. Suggestions on ways and means to improve training activities of KAU were: select training co-coordinator carefully, nominate resource persons based on previous training feedback analysis, have more the field visits and emphasize on skill component, adopt flexibility to modify the schedule based on the changing expectations of the trainees, handouts for each topic to be distributed at least one day before the session, reach out to prospective clients through modern marketing strategies, adopt video conferencing to reduce strain on resource persons, introduction of Massive Online Open Courses with facilities for on-line booking for training and making available the training calendar on the university website in the beginning of each financial year.ThesisItem Open Access Revitalization of agricultural technology management agency (ATMA)(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2015) Rubeena, A; KAU; Sreedaya, G SThe present study entitled “Revitalization of Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA): A comparative study in Thiruvananthapuram and Kottayam districts of Kerala” was carried out at the Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The study aimed at comparing the implementation of revitalized ATMA activities in Thiruvananthapuram and Kottayam districts with a view to suggest measures for further improvement. Since the study is participatory with multi-stakeholder involvement, four classes of stakeholders of ATMA were chosen as respondents namely implementing officials, members of decision making authorities, farmers and NGO and private partners from each district. Multistage random sampling was employed for the study. On analysis of data, it was found that for each category of respondents, the perception about the implementation of ATMA activities was highly positive and significantly higher in Kottayam district than that in Thiruvananthapuram district. Perception about implementation of ATMA was measured in terms of ten dimensions and it was found that almost all dimensions are found to be positive and significantly higher in Kottayam district than in Thiruvananthapuram district. Regarding impact parameters, around 50 per cent farmer respondents expressed that „productivity‟ of banana and vegetable showed 26-50 per cent improvement in both the districts after exposure to ATMA. „Connectivity‟ among the farmers has improved as a result of their participation in farmer oriented activities such as exposure visits, trainings, demonstrations and farm schools in both the districts. The profile characteristics of farmers such as economic motivation, extension contact, extension participation, number of trainings undergone showed positive and significant association with perception about the implementation of ATMA in Kottayam district whereas in Thiruvananthapuram district, age and economic motivation were associated significantly to the dependent variable. The farmers of both the districts felt that „ lack of coordination of line departments in providing service to the farmers‟ was the major constraint in the implementation of ATMA. „Assigning definite role and responsibility to the implementing officers‟ was the most important suggestion of officials in both the districts. „ATMA activities are to be planned in consultation with farmers‟ and „need of regular monitoring of ATMA‟ were the most important suggestions made by the farmers of Kottayam and Thiruvananthapuram districts, respectively. ATMA should enable the Research and Extension systems to become more dynamic and responsive to solving farmers‟ problems. Besides increasing the financial sustainability of the public extension system, new partnerships with private sector and better coordination among the line departments must also be fostered to ensure that the agricultural sector becomes vibrant and innovation-driven.ThesisItem Open Access Social discrimination of tribal agricultural labourers in wayanad district:(Department of Agricultural Extentsion , College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2019) Pooja Krishna, J; KAU; Anil Kumar, AThe study entitled ‘Social discrimination of tribal agricultural labourers in Wayanad district: A critical gender analysis’ was conducted at Mananthavady block of Wayanad district during the year 2017-19. The study was conducted among three tribal communities viz, Kattunaikan, Paniyar and Kurichiyar. The objective of the research was to study the social discrimination experienced by the tribal agricultural labourers, to assess the extent of usefulness of developmental programmes as perceived by tribal agricultural labourers and also their profile characteristics. From each community, 30 male and 30 female tribal agricultural labourers were randomly selected, totaling the sample size to 180. While considering social discrimination, 80 per cent of men and 90 per cent of women experienced a high order of social discrimination and 18.89 per cent of men and 10 per cent of women experienced medium level of social discrimination. Only 1.11 per cent of males experienced low social discrimination. Women experienced a higher scale of social discrimination than men. Among communities, Kattunaikans experienced a higher order of social discrimination, when compared to Paniyan and Kurichiyan respondents, owing to their poor economic status and spatial isolation. The major significant factors that negatively influenced social discrimination were annual income, wage, social participation, health and nutrition, access to common property resources and political orientation. Other than the above, self- confidence was observed to be negatively significant to social discrimination in the case of men, whereas, land alienation, educational status, migration and awareness negatively influenced social discrimination experienced by women tribal agricultural labourers. In the case of perception of extent of usefulness of developmental programmes, officials had a higher level of perception, while the tribal communities had a lower perception. Low level of perception was observed among men (68.89%) and women (77.78%), while, only 31.11 per cent of men and 22.22 per cent of women had medium to high perception. Among the communities, Kattunaikans had a low level of perception of usefulness of developmental programmes than Paniyas and Kurichiyas, majorily contributed by their low awareness and social interaction. The major influencing factors for perception of usefulness of developmental programmes were annual income, wage, political orientation and awareness about the development programmes. Other than the above, self- confidence was found to have significant negative influence on perception in the case of men, whereas, educational status, exposure to mass media and social participation negatively influenced in the case of only women. Profile characteristics of the respondents in the study areas were collected and analysed. More than half of the respondents (58.33%), irrespective of the gender and community, were under middle-age category. Kurichiyas had better education than Paniyas and Kattunaikans and among men and women, women lagged behind in education. Majority of the tribal agricultural labourers earned low to medium wages (82%) and annual income (81%), while women got lower wage (60%) and annual income (84.44%). Kurichiyas owned more land than Paniyas, while, Kattunaikans owned no land. Men owned more land than women. High extent of land alienation was observed among men (90%) and women (93.33%). Kattunaikans and Paniyas incurred debt almost entirely for non-productive purposes, while, Kurichiyas borrowed mainly for farm purposes. While alcoholism and smoking were issues among the males, betel use was common among both men and women. Comparatively high extent of daily migration was observed among men for job, while majority of the women were permanent migrants owing to dependency movement. Low order of mass media exposure (87.22%), social participation (84.58%), self-confidence (98.89%), health and nutrition (91%), political orientation (59.89%) and awareness about development programmes (90.5%) were observed among the tribal agricultural labourers; especially among women. From the findings, it was concluded that, majority of the tribal agricultural labourers experienced a higher order of social discrimination. Perception of extent of usefulness of developmental programmes was found to be lower for tribal agricultural labourers. Among the communities, Kattunaikans experienced a higher scale of social discrimination, while they possessed a lower level of perception. Most importantly, strict gender disparity could be identified, where women experienced a higher order of social discrimination than men. Women were also observed to have a lower level of perception than men. High social discrimination and low perception resulted in the lower socio-economic status of women than men. The government should take steps towards developmental activities in all tribal settlements, in consensus with the tribal representatives. It must also be ensured that the benefits of these development projects reach the intended population.
