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Open Access
Tribal labour migration of Wayanad district: an impact analysis
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2021) Mano Sandesh, V V; KAU; Anilkumar, A
The study entitled “tribal labour migration of Wayanad district: an impact analysis” was undertaken during 2016-2020at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, with the major objectives of studying the impact of tribal labour migration on the livelihood of tribespeople and the agricultural situation of Wayanad district. Factors influencing the tribal labour migration and their migration proneness were also studied. The study was conducted in all the four blocks of Wayanad district viz., Mananthavady, Sulthan Bathery, Kalpetta and Panamaram. From each block 30 tribal migrants, 10 tribal non migrants and 10 non tribal significant other respondents were selected randomly making a total of 200 respondents. The data collected were statistically analysed using arithmetic mean, percentage, correlation analysis and non parametric test. The study revealed that half of the respondents had medium level of livelihood capital index before migration. Most of the tribal migrants possessed medium level of human capital, social capital, natural capital and financial capital before migration. A lion share (61.66%) of the respondents had low level of physical capital before migration. The analysis of livelihood after migration revealed that more than half (60.83%) of the tribal migrants had high livelihood capital index after migration. Immense increase (30.6%) in physical capital of tribespeople due to migration was obvious from study results and it was remarkable for tribes belonging to Kattunaikan and Paniya communities. This caused a temptation for migration among tribal non migrants. A substantial number (85.83%) of tribal migrants had medium social capital and 73.33 per cent had medium of human capital after migration. There was a decrease in the social capital of tribespeople due to migration and this was an indication that tribal migrants were not actively involving in the social activities. After migration 83.33 per cent of tribal migrants had only low natural capital. This tremendous decrease in natural capital indicate poor use of natural resources by tribespeople. Majority (70.83%) of the tribal migrants had a high financial capital after migration. The increase in the financial capital and physical capital was highly significant in uplifting the livelihood capital index of tribal migrants. Sixty five per cent of the tribal non migrants had high livelihood capital index. Globalisation has also affected the life style, food habits and education of tribespeople. Cultural changes were observed among the young tribespeople and many of them have turned to non agricultural labour activities. This also helped them to achieve higher financial capital and there by increased livelihood capital index. Analysis of the relationship between the dependent variable livelihood capital index and profile characteristics of tribespeople revealed that, viz. age, annual income, education, land holding, experience in agriculture, level of aspiration and economic motivation correlated significantly. Marital status and wage per day correlated significantly to livelihood capital index before migration while they were not significant after migration. Most of the tribal migrants had medium migration proneness. Young tribespeople were found to be more prone to migration than middle or old aged tribespeople. Majority of the tribal non migrants had lower migration proneness and they assumed that for a sustainable livelihood, migration is not a necessary factor. On correlation analysis it was found that education, wage per day, political orientation, type of house, level of aspiration and risk preference positively and significantly correlated with migration proneness whereas age, marital status, debt and experience in agriculture correlated negatively with migration proneness. Regarding the nature of migration of tribal migrants, majority of the migrants were daily and seasonal migrants and none of them migrated permanently. A higher percentage of tribal migration was interstate. They migrated mostly to Coorg area via Kutta region of Thirunelli Panchayath and Karnataka via Mysore road to work as agricultural labourers mainly for ginger cultivation. The entire tribal migrants moved in groups and the decision to migrate was induced rather than self chosen. Majority of tribal migrants went for agriculture labour work and were non registered migrants. Unemployment or loss of employment was the main push factor for migration. Low wages, poverty, malnutrition, small holding, landlessness, decline of natural resources, frustration, alienation from community and indebtedness were other major push factors of migration. Superior opportunity for employment was the main pull factor for migration. Better job security, superior opportunity to earn higher income, opportunity to obtain desired specialization, education, skill or training and better food were other major pull factors of migration. Scarcity of agricultural labourers was the major consequence of tribal labour migration, which in turn caused a decrease in agricultural land area. Change in the cropping pattern of Wayanad district, use of agricultural land for non agricultural purposes and immigration of agricultural labourers from other states to Wayanad were found to be other consequences of tribal labour migration. Shortage of skilled labourers, significant change in wage structure and decline of indigenous knowledge were also the results of tribal labour migration. In the light of the study some of the important policy prescriptions for the consideration of the government are (i) create better local job opportunities in the agriculture sector (ii) strengthen police patrolling in the tribal colonies to control illegal marketing of alcohol (iii) implement stringent registration procedures for tribal who are migrating (iv) evaluate the livelihood of tribal migrants periodically (v) formulate new programs and activities to conserve the traditional life style of tribespeople (vi) open and maintain rehabilitation centers in tribal areas to reduce alcohol addiction among tribal migrants (vii) initiate counseling and guidance centers for tribal migrants (viii) conduct regular inspections at migratory places to discourage exploitation of tribespeople (ix) ensure decent and indiscriminating wage structure for tribespeople in their native places.
Open Access
Exploratory study for resilient wheat farming in Nigeria
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022) Salisu, Ahmad Dambazau; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty, M
Wheat growing has been the most difficult aspect of Nigerian agriculture for decades. Certain issues remain unresolved, posing a threat to the country's goal of diversifying revenue and lowering its growing reliance on imported wheat. Low wheat production, insecurity in Nigeria's wheat region, a lack of mechanized and updated farming techniques, and uncompetitive pricing are among the issues. This study for resilient wheat farming in Nigeria was conducted with the specific objectives of exploring the sociopolitical situation affecting wheat farming, studying the perceived effects of climate change on production of wheat and livelihoods of wheat farmers, analysing the government policies and schemes on wheat production, examining the marketing behaviour of wheat farmers, and arriving at policy options for resilient wheat farming in Nigeria. In view of the key research objectives, an ex-post facto research design was employed. A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted where three states (Jigawa, Kano and Yobe) and six local government areas (Ajingi, Bade, Garun Malan, Kafin Hausa, Nguru and Ringim), two from each state, were selected for the study. Furthermore, forty respondents were randomly selected from each local government area, making the total sample size of 240. Personal interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect primary data. A pre-test was also conducted to ensure the validity of the instruments. Secondary data was gathered from policy documents, relevant literature, government reports, newspapers, and so on. The elicited data was tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted by the use of descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, likert scale of summated rating, content analysis techniques (MAXQDA 2022 statistical software), price spread analysis, compound growth rate analysis, Kruskal-Wallis test, discriminant function analysis, and the Kendell coefficient of concordance test. The study revealed that the farmers were within their active age, married, and living below the poverty line, have low levels of education, mostly explored additional sources of income, and have enough years of experience in wheat farming. The farmers have marginal land size and acquired it through one method, using mostly certified and non-certified seeds and sourcing it mostly from two places while in contact with an extension agent most of the time. The respondents also participated in other activities for livelihood earning and have a larger number of household members, mostly with one earning member. The study revealed that the most common biotic, abiotic, social and political stress affecting wheat crops and farmers differ with regard to location. The major stresses affecting wheat farmers in Nigeria were pests and diseases, wild birds, marketing of their produce, rodents and domestic animal attacks. The social and political situations affecting wheat production were identified as internal social factors, external social factors, and political factors. Lack of good cultivation practices and the knowledge level of the farmers were the major internal social factors. These, among others, prevented the farmer from fully adopting the recommended agronomic practices. While the major external social factors were consumer food habits, consumer demand for convenience, lower produce prices, and high input costs, The political factors identified were social security issues, inconsistent government policies, intricacies in implementation, the role of the media in publication, role-playing by the milling industries, international trade interests, and lack of political will. No doubt, wheat millers imported more than required in 1986. It may have been a means for them to sabotage AWPP's success. The present approach employed by the milling industry, if sustained, will surely boost the wheat crop production in the country. Further findings indicated that the overall growth rate during the study period was -1% for production and only a minimal growth rate of 2% for harvested area, while a 5% positive growth rate was recorded in imports. It was a clear indication of the low yield of the wheat crop in Nigeria. The findings affirmed that the respondents were aware of climate change, with the majority of them having a medium perception of its effects on wheat production in Nigeria. There was a significant difference among the respondents with regard to the climate change perception which was influenced by their age, educational level, secondary occupation, years of experience, contact with extension agents, and household size. Additionally, Nigeria’s climate has no or little effect on wheat crop production. However, it may be that wheat production in Nigeria has been affected largely by human action rather than climatic and environmental factors. The findings inferred that the wheat production policies were domiciled in Kano state and that there was no equal distribution and allocation of resources among the states. The Anchor Borrower Program (ABP) is the only program having participants across the study areas. This may be because there is advancement in policy handling among the implementing agencies. The ABP failed to capture sustainability in production as well as rural infrastructural development in the program statement. The Agricultural Promotion Policy (APP) document left no stone unturned, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development is driving the implementation of the policy. The policy document gives priority to stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities and is more concerned about sustainability in the production of the priority crops as well as reliability in the marketing channels. The document considers modern day agricultural approaches through the involvement of private sectors in all areas of the agricultural commodity value chain. For the improvement of rural livelihoods, the policy considered the development of the farming communities’ infrastructure. However, the respondents have a medium perception of government policy and scheme on wheat production in Nigeria which influenced by their age, educational level, secondary occupation, years of experience, contact with extension agent, farm size, household size and monthly income, and there was no significant difference in their perception. The majority of the respondents sell their produce immediately after harvest if the price is favourable due to financial urgency for both wholesalers and retailers in the case of Jigawa and Yobe, and consumers in the case of Kano. The majority sell in the local market due to proximity and using trucks as their main transportation facility. The study also inferred that the majority of the respondents relied on informal sources of market information and utilized them regularly. This revealed the kind of trust the respondents gave to those sources and affirmed the weakness of the extension system in the study areas, especially in Yobe state. There were four marketing channels in Jigawa and Kano, while three were identified in Yobe. The producers received the highest percent of the marketing share in channel I (producer –consumer) and a higher amount in channel II (producer–retailer–consumer). The marketing margin was higher in channel III (producer–wholesaler–retailer–consumer) and the producers received a lower amount when compared with channels I and II. This indicates that the more the actors, the less the producers share. There was no additional information obtained from channel IV as it involved industrial processes. Moreover, the study shows that there was significant variation between the states with regard to the variables under study among the respondents between the states. The variable marketing behaviour had the most prominent effect in predicting membership in the group between Kano and other states, while farm size was the most prominent effect between Jigawa and Yobe. The variability in net income of a wheat farmer in Nigeria could be predicted with 99.3% accuracy using age, total output, selling price, straw price, quantity of pesticide used, frequency of irrigation, and total cost of production. The study confirmed that the major constraints affecting wheat farmers in Nigeria were a lack of government intervention, a weak extension system, high input and pest and disease costs, a low output price, insufficient credit facilities, a lack of high-yielding varieties, poor yield, and a lack of a regular market. There was strong agreement on the most important constraints among the respondents of different states. For Nigeria to achieve the desired outcome, focused commitments and the adoption of a multi-dimensional approach are required. Political factors were the major concerns surrounding the wheat production sector and would be overcome through a yearly stakeholders' round table meeting to review the situation. External social factor issues would be addressed by raising awareness and establishing a commodity board to ensure remunerative prices for farmers and reasonable prices for consumers, as well as a consistent supply of raw materials to milling industries. Extension should be intensified to enhance the knowledge level of the farmer for better understanding and increased adoption of new varieties. This could help to overcome internal social issues. More young people need to be persuaded to work in wheat farming in order to increase production and sustainability. Resilient wheat farming in Nigeria could be achieved through focused commitments across the stakeholders’ line. Legislation should be enacted to deal with saboteurs, and the adoption of a multi-dimensional approach toward solving any unforeseen circumstances, should be resorted to.
Open Access
Tribal labour migration of Wayanad district: an impact analysis
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2021) Mano Sandesh, V V; KAU; Anilkumar, A
The study entitled “tribal labour migration of Wayanad district: an impact analysis” was undertaken during 2016-2020at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, with the major objectives of studying the impact of tribal labour migration on the livelihood of tribespeople and the agricultural situation of Wayanad district. Factors influencing the tribal labour migration and their migration proneness were also studied. The study was conducted in all the four blocks of Wayanad district viz., Mananthavady, Sulthan Bathery, Kalpetta and Panamaram. From each block 30 tribal migrants, 10 tribal non migrants and 10 non tribal significant other respondents were selected randomly making a total of 200 respondents. The data collected were statistically analysed using arithmetic mean, percentage, correlation analysis and non parametric test. The study revealed that half of the respondents had medium level of livelihood capital index before migration. Most of the tribal migrants possessed medium level of human capital, social capital, natural capital and financial capital before migration. A lion share (61.66%) of the respondents had low level of physical capital before migration. The analysis of livelihood after migration revealed that more than half (60.83%) of the tribal migrants had high livelihood capital index after migration. Immense increase (30.6%) in physical capital of tribespeople due to migration was obvious from study results and it was remarkable for tribes belonging to Kattunaikan and Paniya communities. This caused a temptation for migration among tribal non migrants. A substantial number (85.83%) of tribal migrants had medium social capital and 73.33 per cent had medium of human capital after migration. There was a decrease in the social capital of tribespeople due to migration and this was an indication that tribal migrants were not actively involving in the social activities. After migration 83.33 per cent of tribal migrants had only low natural capital. This tremendous decrease in natural capital indicate poor use of natural resources by tribespeople. Majority (70.83%) of the tribal migrants had a high financial capital after migration. The increase in the financial capital and physical capital was highly significant in uplifting the livelihood capital index of tribal migrants. Sixty five per cent of the tribal non migrants had high livelihood capital index. Globalisation has also affected the life style, food habits and education of tribespeople. Cultural changes were observed among the young tribespeople and many of them have turned to non agricultural labour activities. This also helped them to achieve higher financial capital and there by increased livelihood capital index. Analysis of the relationship between the dependent variable livelihood capital index and profile characteristics of tribespeople revealed that, viz. age, annual income, education, land holding, experience in agriculture, level of aspiration and economic motivation correlated significantly. Marital status and wage per day correlated significantly to livelihood capital index before migration while they were not significant after migration. Most of the tribal migrants had medium migration proneness. Young tribespeople were found to be more prone to migration than middle or old aged tribespeople. Majority of the tribal non migrants had lower migration proneness and they assumed that for a sustainable livelihood, migration is not a necessary factor. On correlation analysis it was found that education, wage per day, political orientation, type of house, level of aspiration and risk preference positively and significantly correlated with migration proneness whereas age, marital status, debt and experience in agriculture correlated negatively with migration proneness. Regarding the nature of migration of tribal migrants, majority of the migrants were daily and seasonal migrants and none of them migrated permanently. A higher percentage of tribal migration was interstate. They migrated mostly to Coorg area via Kutta region of Thirunelli Panchayath and Karnataka via Mysore road to work as agricultural labourers mainly for ginger cultivation. The entire tribal migrants moved in groups and the decision to migrate was induced rather than self chosen. Majority of tribal migrants went for agriculture labour work and were non registered migrants. Unemployment or loss of employment was the main push factor for migration. Low wages, poverty, malnutrition, small holding, landlessness, decline of natural resources, frustration, alienation from community and indebtedness were other major push factors of migration. Superior opportunity for employment was the main pull factor for migration. Better job security, superior opportunity to earn higher income, opportunity to obtain desired specialization, education, skill or training and better food were other major pull factors of migration. Scarcity of agricultural labourers was the major consequence of tribal labour migration, which in turn caused a decrease in agricultural land area. Change in the cropping pattern of Wayanad district, use of agricultural land for non agricultural purposes and immigration of agricultural labourers from other states to Wayanad were found to be other consequences of tribal labour migration. Shortage of skilled labourers, significant change in wage structure and decline of indigenous knowledge were also the results of tribal labour migration. In the light of the study some of the important policy prescriptions for the consideration of the government are (i) create better local job opportunities in the agriculture sector (ii) strengthen police patrolling in the tribal colonies to control illegal marketing of alcohol (iii) implement stringent registration procedures for tribal who are migrating (iv) evaluate the livelihood of tribal migrants periodically (v) formulate new programs and activities to conserve the traditional life style of tribespeople (vi) open and maintain rehabilitation centers in tribal areas to reduce alcohol addiction among tribal migrants (vii) initiate counseling and guidance centers for tribal migrants (viii) conduct regular inspections at migratory places to discourage exploitation of tribespeople (ix) ensure decent and indiscriminating wage structure for tribespeople in their native places.
Open Access
Farming among the Attappady tribes of Kerala: a livelihood analysis
(Department of Agriculture Extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Sachana, P C; KAU; Binoo Bonny, B
Kerala has achieved remarkable improvement in the social sector, celebrated as ‘Kerala Model of Development’. But it is observed that the development process fell short to encompass tribal communities in the course. Majority of the tribes in Kerala continue to depend on agriculture and are struggling to compete with the current situational threats like climate change and wild animal menace. Moreover, the commercial exploitation of forest resources has resulted in extensive soil erosion and loss of soil fertility. Therefore, sustaining crop production and productivity without damaging the resources and environment are posing big challenge to the tribal farming. This threatened the livelihood of the tribal community which depended on agriculture and forest, forcing them to be bonded and migrant labour (Patidar et al. 2018). Attappady tribal development block of Palakkad district is one of the 43 tribal development blocks in India and is inhabited by three tribal communities viz., Irulas, Mudugas and Kurumbas. Delineation of the factors influencing the selection of farming techniques and strategies among tribal farmers were studied and data collected was analysed using factor analysis to delineate the factors. Agricultural technology and input services, policy, knowledge and information support, infrastructure, weather & technological constraints, farm management and market orientation and access to extension services were found to be the factors determining for the selection of farming strategy and agricultural technologies. Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) was used to measure the dietary diversity and was found to be relatively very low compared to the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA). The tribal diets were found to be grossly deficient in calcium, vitamin A, vitamin C, riboflavin and animal protein. Community kitchen based on food aids that functioned in the respective tribal hamlets (ooru) played a significant role in maintaining the food security of the community. Simpson crop diversity index used to measure the cop diversity in areas where Millet village programme implemented. Majority of 68.3 and 16.7 per cent of the households belonged to categories with high and very high crop diversity indices. Food security status of Attappady tribes was measured using Food Security Index (FSI) based on the parameters of availability, accessibility, utilization and stability. Eight per cent of the tribes recorded very low food security (FSI 0.01-0.20), another 46.7 per cent of the tribes belonged to low food security status with FSI values between 0.21 and 0.40. However, there were 33.3 and 12 per cent of them respectively in medium and very high food security categories. Livelihood security assessment was done using Livelihood Asset Pentagon (FAO, 2008) based on the five core assets viz. natural, social, human, physical and financial capital. Livelihood status of tribes of Agali panchayath on the selected dimensions and also the overall score indicated low Financial Capital Index (FCI) scores of 35.91 for the region. It could also be observed that on all other dimensions, the panchayat had moderate scores with Social Capital Index (SCI) of 59.52, Human Capital Index (HCI) of 62.27, Physical Capital Index (PCI)of 65.00 and Natural Capital Index(NCI) of 66.35. Overall Livelihood Security Index for the Agali panchayat was at 57.81. Livelihood status of tribes of Pudur panchayath on the selected core dimensions indicated comparitively low scores on all the selected dimensions with lowest scores for social capital (16.88), Financial Capital Index (FCI) of 47.00, Human Capital Index (HCI) of 45.14, Physical Capital Index (PCI)of 57.75 and Natural Capital Index(NCI) of 50.96. The overall Livelihood Security Index (LSI) for the panchayat was only 43.55. In the case of Sholayur panchayat very low Social Capital Index (SCI) of 21.63, Financial Capital Index (FCI) of 40.57, Human Capital Index (HCI) of 48.45, Physical Capital Index (PCI) of 62.93 and Natural Capital Index (NCI) of 52.95. The overall Livelihood Security Index (LSI) for the area was 45.31. The livelihood status of tribes of Attappady tribal development block on the selected core dimensions indicated comparitively low scores on all the selected dimensions with lowest scores for social capital (32.68). The area also had very moderate scores on Financial Capital Index (FCI) of 41.16, Human Capital Index (HCI) of 51.95, Physical Capital Index (PCI)of 61.89 and Natural Capital Index(NCI) of 56.75. The overall Livelihood Security Index (LSI) for the block was only 48.89.
Open Access
Effective agricultural information delivery system-an action research among farmers
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2008) Nazreen Hassan, S; KAU; Kishore Kumar, N
Extension providers and client expectations include superior information accessing and dissemination, ongoing farmer-extension-research communications and marketing. AgIDS offer tremendous potential for accelerating development. They are transforming our lives, creating wealth and impacting every facet of human endeavor. Agricultural marketing requires connectivity between the market and exporters, growers, traders, industry consumers, through wide area network of national and international linkages in order to provide day-to-day information with regard to commodity arrivals and prevailing rates etc. this study was carried out with the objective of bringing out the underlying facts in the Information Communication technology available to the benefit of the farmers. Thiruvananthapuram district has been purposively selected for the study because this is the only district in Kerala having information kiosks being operated in the Krishibhavans. From the ten Krishibhavans three Krishibhavans were selected based on the maximum numbers of users of this ICT facility based on the records available in the Krishibhavans. The respondents were selected by random sampling method. 60 user farmers and 30 non-user farmers from each panchayat were selected and they formed the respondents of this study. A total of 270 farmers were contacted for the study. From a review of related literature and discussion with experts a comprehensive list of variables were selected. The dependent variables included attributes of ICT, Communication behaviour, information need and skill requirement. Majority of the farmers came under middle age group. Majority of the farmer in both the categories were found to be marginal farmers. Mostly the users were in a better socio economic group. The Extension Service must be able to provide information that makes a difference. ICTs are tools that help build human network, increase public awareness and provide access to information and knowledge for the use of people. They include Telephone, Fax, GIS, Radio, Television, Print, Internet, Video, Audio, Computer and technologies on the drawing boards. Possession of ICT tools by users was found to be higher than the nonusers except for farm magazines where the nonusers out-numbered the users. The mean of the socio technical variables was found to be the maximum for physical compatibility and desirability in the case of users. This was followed by social acceptability and simplicity. This was followed by physical compatibility and social acceptability. In both the cases user education had the minimum score. So this area needs more attention. Majority of farmers in both the categories perceived efficiency of ICT as ‘saving time and money in interacting’ and has ‘all information the farmer wants’ in the nonuser category. This was followed by one stop shop information by the users and supports marketing in the case of non users. There existed significant relation ship between the dependent variables. Also significant relationship was observed in the relationship that existed between some independent variables and dependent variables. A majority of the users claim that they slightly agree to the fact that their productivity has increased compared to the previous year. Analysis of variance showed a comparison between the user group and the non user group. It was found that the user group was higher in the case of all dependent variables. But in the case of information need it was found to be almost similar. A need assessment can help Extension educators to decide whether an extension program should be improved and how the services should be better delivered. The farmers needed information on agriculture such as market rates, bio pesticides, bio fertilizers. These areas ranked top in their information needs. This was followed by organic farming, plant protection and cropping practices. The skill requirement of the non-users farmers was more than the user farmers. The action research was conducted in the form of training on the skills of using computers. The participants for the research were selected by random sampling from the list of non user farmers’ interviewed. The farmers were exposed to the skills for five hours for two days i.e., for ten hours each to a group of thirty members. The influence of Training on the non-users observance on their knowledge gain, and skill acquisition at different intervals of time on the existing ICT facility was studied by documenting the knowledge gain, and skill acquisition at one week, one month and three months interval by the trainees. The results of paired‘t’ test on knowledge gain and skill acquisition showed high significance between different intervals of time. As perceived by the farmers it was found that lack in skill was the major problem that prevented most farmers in accessing through the ICT facility. The farmers also gave out some suggestions to bring this facility in a more effective manner. The study indicated anew strategy for solving the problems in technology dissemination by finding out the actual needs of the farmers in harnessing the benefits of ICT.
Open Access
Environmental concerns in the development projects on rice farming under decentralized planning
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2011) Smitha, K P; KAU; Anilkumar, A
The study entitled ‘Environmental concerns in the development projects on rice farming under decentralized planning’ was undertaken with the major objective of studying the nature and extent of environmental concerns in planning and implementation of development projects on rice farming under decentralized planning in Palakkad District. Environmental awareness and constraints perceived by stakeholders in planning and implementation of the projects were also studied. The research project was undertaken in Palakkad district, as the district accounts for about 1/3rd of the total area under rice cultivation of Kerala state. Four blocks, viz. Kollengode, Kuzhalmannam, Chittur and Alathur were selected purposively based on the highest area under rice. Thekkinchira, Nelliancaud, Manchira and Kolapadam padashekarams were randomly selected from the above four respective blocks. Ten each of beneficiary farmers, agricultural labourers, people’s representatives/social activists in the same padashekaram were selected randomly for the study. Thus a total of 40 beneficiary farmers, 40 agricultural labourers and 40 people’s representatives/social activists were selected from the study area. In addition to those included in the selected projects / padashekarams, extension functionaries from other regions of the district were also randomly selected, so as to make a sample size of 40. Thus a total of 160 respondents belonging to the four categories constituted the sample of this study. The data collected were statistically analyzed using arithmetic mean, percentage, canonical correlation analysis and principal component analysis. The study on environmental concerns and awareness of stakeholders revealed that the farmer respondents had high to medium level of environmental concerns and awareness. Most of the agricultural labourers possessed medium level of environmental concerns while all of them were in the medium awareness category. All the extension personnel and majority of people’s representatives/social activists had high awareness and concern for environment. In the nature of environmental concerns it was found that in the land and soil management dimension, most of the padashekarasamithi considered three technologies while planning viz. (1) practicing crop rotation with pulses/leguminous green manures /fringe cropping with cowpea (2) application of nitrogen and potassium in two to three split doses and (3) application of lime while all the farmer respondents adopted two technologies viz. (1) applying nitrogen and potassium in 2-3 split doses according to the duration of the variety and (2) incorporation of crop residue in the field. While majority of the samithis considered only a single water management technology in the planning stage (selection of suitable varieties based on water availability) all the respondents adopted three major water management practices viz.(1) summer ploughing, (2) land/leveling/ puddling and (3) maintaining standing water as per crop requirement. All the samithis included augmentation of parasite / predator population in the field / use of natural enemies like Pseudomonas in the planning stage. Majority of the farmers avoided poaching and killing of birds and animals in rice fields. Selection of right season was considered in the planning stage by all the samithis and all the respondent farmers ploughed the field and exposed it to sun as a part of the plant protection practices. With respect to the extent of environmental concerns in the planning stage, majority of the farmers were found to be in the lower class of adoption with regard to land and soil management, water management, biodiversity conservation and plant protection practices while most of them were in the medium category in the implementation stage of all the four dimensions. Percentage adoption of land and soil management practices, water management, biodiversity conservation and plant protection practices was very high over planning and it was the highest in case of water management dimension. The above results show the inefficient planning at padashekarasamithi level and a better adoption and environmental concerns at the farmer level. Analysis of the relationship between the dependent variables (environmental concerns, awareness and extent of environmental concerns reflected in adoption of eco-friendly technologies) and profile characteristics of farmers revealed that environmental concern is the most important dependant variable and the profile characteristics viz. perception on the importance of mitigating environmental degradation, indigenous wisdom orientation, knowledge on eco-friendly rice cultivation, experience in eco-friendly farming, sense of empowerment, risk orientation, export orientation, educational status and participation in environment related activities contributes the most in developing environmental concerns and awareness. In the case of all other respondents out of the two dependent variables viz. environmental concerns and awareness, environmental concern is the most important dependent variable than environmental awareness. The variables sense of empowerment, experience in eco-friendly farming, knowledge on eco-friendly rice cultivation, perception on the importance of mitigating environmental degradation, age and indigenous wisdom orientation play crucial role in developing concern and awareness on environment in agricultural labourers while communication effectiveness, decision making ability and participation in environmental activities have the highest influence on the dependent variables in the case of extension personnel. Perception on the importance of mitigating environmental degradation, educational status, indigenous wisdom orientation, leadership, attitude towards group management and participation in environmental activities play very important role in defining environmental concern and awareness of people’s representatives / social activists. The B-C ratio of eco-friendly rice cultivation, conventional rice cultivation and cow based minimum budget rice farming (Gō-adharitha krishi) was 1.39, 1.79 and 2.2 respectively. The major reason for this is the higher cost of cultivation incurred in the case of eco-friendly rice cultivation which is due to the high cost of organic inputs and its application. But the price in the market is the same irrespective of the methods of production, which reduce the profit for eco-friendly farmers. Cow based minimum budget rice farming (Gō-adharitha krishi) portrays the success of eco-friendly farming by way of value addition and better marketing. The mean social benefit-cost ratio for all the respondents was high, which substantiates the general perception that social benefits derived from eco-friendly rice farming was higher than the social costs. The dimensions such as non- remunerative price, higher cost of cultivation and inconvenience in handling eco-friendly inputs contributed higher magnitude of variation towards social cost and the dimensions, superior quality of rice, enrichment of biodiversity, improvement in water quality and self-development contributed to higher magnitude of variations towards social benefit. Most of the farmers considered padashekarasamithi as a supplier of inputs from krishi bhavans, which was a major constraint in the planning stage while in the implementation stage the major constraint perceived by them was the labour unavailability. The labourers professed labour unavailability, lack of knowledge on eco-friendly techniques, lack of good quality, certified organic inputs in the market and higher cost of these inputs as the major constraints in the implementation stage. The major constraints according to the extension personnel were lack of co-ordination among the members of padashekarasamithi in the planning stage and labour unavailability, lack of good quality, certified organic inputs in the market in the implementation stage. While in the case of people’s representatives/social activists the major constraint perceived in the planning stage was the farmers outlook of padashekarasamithi as a mere input supplier of krishi bhavan. This group of stakeholders felt labour unavailability and problems in marketing organic rice due to its difficulty in getting it certified as the major constraints in the implementation stage. Some of the important policy prescriptions in the light of the study which the government should undertake are (i) offer incentive price for rice produced in an eco-friendly way (ii) provide assured market and farmer-customer networking (iii) simplify procedures of organic certification (iv) develop certification procedures for eco-friendly rice (v) value addition and (vi) offer incentives for farmers practicing clean agriculture (vii) encourage and conscientize farmers for cultivation of traditional varieties and use of indigenous wisdom (viii) redefining and updating organic farming policy (ix) encourge group approach in organic rice farming (x) encourage mixed farming (xi) maintain biodiversity register for grama panchayats and (xii) ensure availability of eco-friendly inputs .
Open Access
Agricultural expert system - a participatory assessment
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2008) Helen, S; KAU; Kaleel, F M H
Cyber Extension includes effective use of Information and Communication Technology, national and international information networks, Internet, Expert Systems, Multimedia Learning Systems and Computer based training systems to improve information access to the farmers, extension personnel and scientists. The dissemination of the technologies could be enhanced by using expert systems and other artificial intelligence technologies (Hadi et al., 2006). An expert system is a computer-based program that uses knowledge, facts and different reasoning techniques to solve problems that normally require the abilities of human experts. The expert systems are based on the concept of artificial intelligence in which the experience and knowledge of human experts are captured in the form of IF-THEN rules and facts, to solve the field problems (Rao, 2003). ‘Diagnos-4’, was a computer-assisted software developed by Kerala Agricultural University during 2004. This package would support the agricultural extension workers and literate farmers for decision-making and help them in suggesting suitable control measures of the major pests and diseases of important nine crops of Kerala (Ganesan, 2002). It will be modified and released shortly for the benefit of all the stakeholders involved in agricultural development. Before introducing the system among users, it is appropriate to explore the possibilities of functioning of AES under the existing extension system so that suitable modifications can be made to make it more user friendly. Development of AES, ‘Diagnos-4’ was the pioneering and ambitious programme of Kerala Agricultural University. The personnel involved in technology dissemination and technology users need much information on plant protection measures. Hence ‘Diagnos-4’ was selected purposively. The research was conducted among the prospective users in two phases viz; exploratory design among researchers who were in the research institutes engaged in AES development and in TOT, all over India and experimental design among extension personnel and farmers from Palakkad District of Kerala. Mean scores, percentage analysis, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, t-test for two samples assuming equal variances and Binary Logistic Regression were the statistical tools used in this study. Twenty AES were identified during this study, developed by various agricultural research institutions in India. Many of the systems were restricted only to limited groups of users and they were yet to be popularized among the ultimate users. It was found that extension personnel and farmers possessed low level of knowledge especially in the areas of plant protection aspects of crops and they were in need of information on the same. Hence there is a lot of scope for the application of AES among extension personnel and farmers on plant protection aspects of crops that help the users to clarify their doubts, confirm their knowledge and provide real time information to the technology users. Prospective users in the transfer of technology stream were very much satisfied about the future prospects of AES based on its better performance, settings in the AES, mode of presentation, practicability and serviceability of the system. The areas that needed modifications were: retrievability of information, relevancy of information and information content. Release of Malayalam Version with more emphasis on easy retrievability of information, needs the immediate attention of the researchers. All the categories of respondents perceived that AES had got ‘more potential’ in the transfer of technology in terms of disseminating information to the users. The combination of AES and human expertise showed better performance and higher Information Efficiency Index (IEI) among the extension personnel and farmers. Majority of the extension personnel rated AES with high IEI. Whereas majority of the farmers rated AES with low IEI. Extension personnel and farmers assessed that the overall percentage of solution offered by AES in the plant protection of rice, coconut and banana was almost on par with the solutions given by human experts and in combination, it served better. It is better to introduce the AES designed separately for extension personnel and farmers. It is also necessary to release the software among the prospective users after a comprehensive orientation in using the AES. Maximum potential of AES can be explored by making the users as the partners in the AES development process to ensure user friendliness of Agricultural Expert System.
Open Access
Indicators of sustainable agricultural development: a multi-variable analysis among self help groups of "kudumbashree mission" in Thiruvananthapuram district.
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, vellayani, 2016) Chinchu, V S; KAU; Padmanabhan, V B
The study entitled “Indicators of sustainable agricultural development: A multi-variate analysis among self-help groups of “Kudumbashree Mission” in Thiruvananthapuram district” was undertaken with the specific objective of critically analyzing the extent of attainment of the three pillars of sustainable development, namely, economic development, social develop¬ment and environmental protection by the agricultural activities of the self-help groups under Kudumbashree Mission in the study area and to identify the constraints and formulate a strategy for increasing the effectiveness of the programme. Exploratory or Formulative Research Design was employed for the study. The sustainability was studied among 40 agriculturally active SHGs. Profile characteristics of 200 women farmers were also studied. The study was undertaken in the Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala state. Out of the 12 development blocks in the district, five blocks were randomly selected, namely, Parassala, Perumkadavila, Nemom, Nedumangad and Vellanad. From each of the blocks, one agriculturally active Community Development Society (CDS) was purposively selected, namely, Kunnathukal, Karode, Malayinkeezhu, Karakulam and Kattakkada. There were two categories of respondents for the study. Two hundred number of SHG-based farm women formed the first category of respondents and 40 number of agriculturally active SHGs formed the second category of respondents. From each of the Community Development Society, 40 number of agriculturally active and SHG-based farm women were randomly selected. These added upto 200 individual respondents. Eight agriculturally active SHGs were also randomly selected from each of the five Community Development Societies and these added upto 40 SHGs. Fourteen variables were used to study the individual SHG members. ANOVA was done where ever possible to find out if there existed any difference between each of the five sample CDSs for any particular variable. Seventeen independent variables related to SHGs were also studied. An index namely, Sustainable Agricultural Development Index (SADI) was developed as part of the study for exclusively measuring the sustainability of group farming by the women groups. The index covered eighteen variables related to the economic, social and environmental aspects of group farming. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was also done using the software SAS 9.3 to find out the relative importance of each of the indicators and sub-indicators towards the sustainability of group farming. The strengths, weaknesses, potentials and challenges of SHG-based farming were also found out using SWPC analysis. The constraints faced by both individual SHG members as well as the groups as such were found out and ranked. Finally the suggestions for improvement of SHG-based farming and suggested lines of future research were also spelt out based on the results of the study and the on-field experiences of the researcher. The study could find out that majority of the sample SHG-based women were of middle aged and were having nuclear families and secondary education. They were engaged in some income generating activities other than agriculture. They had good experience in both SHG based activities and in agricultural activities. Krishibhavan was found to be the most prominent information source for those women. The SHG-based women were found to possess a good level of self confidence, innovativeness, scientific orientation, achievement motivation, economic motivation and risk orientation. It was observed that as they grew older, both SHG experience and farming experience increased but their level of innovativeness went on decreasing. Regarding the SHGs, the study revealed that their mean size was 4.33 and had a mixed population of BPL members, APL members, general category members, OBC members and SC/ST members. Invariably all the sample SHGs were cultivating banana and 70 per cent of the groups were cultivating two or more crops. Also 70 per cent of the groups had availed loans with a mean amount of Rs. 1,40,714. As high as 95 per cent of the groups used to hire external labour especially for initial land preparation. The mean area cultivated by a sample SHG was found to be 190.53 cents. On economic front, all the groups were found to have a high degree of economic motivation. The BC ratio of majority of the groups was found to be medium. Eighty per cent of the groups showed an increase in their income over the previous year and also could generate a good number of day’s employment in agricultural sector. As the area cultivated had increased, addition in the income and employment generation were also found to increase. The study elucidated area cultivated (AC) and benefit-cost ratio (BCR) as the most important sub-indicators of economic development. On social front, the study revealed that majority of the groups were possessing a high transparency, equity, leadership, cohesiveness, accountability, team spirit and co-operation with ‘team spirit’ followed by ‘equity’ as the most important sub-indicators of social sustainability of Kudumbashree SHGs. Regarding environmental protection, ‘adoption of soil conservation measures’ and ‘avoidance of chemical fertilizers’ were found to be the most important sub-indicators affecting environmental sustainability. A quarter of the Kudumbashree groups were found to follow organic farming, around 20 per cent followed strict chemical-based modern agriculture and the rest followed a middle path between organic farming and modern agriculture. The Sustainable Agricultural Development Index (SADI) for the studied sample was found to be 0.69. It could be concluded that though the agriculturally active Kudumbashree SHGs in the study area had reasonable economic sustainability and social sustainability, their performance in environmental protection was a bit lower and only if they strengthen this weak link, they can become truly sustainable. Crop loss due to pests, diseases, wild animals and other climatic factors was the foremost constraint expressed by the respondents of the study. The study recommends establishment of ‘Woman Farmer Producer Companies’ (WFPC) at taluk level under the direct control of the respective District Missions or adoption of ‘Anand Pattern Co-operative Method’ as two viable strategies for improving the sustainability of agricultural activities performed under Kudumbashree mission.
Open Access
Organic farming as a strategy for climate change adaptation - an exploratory study
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculturture, Vellayani, 2018) Sangeetha, K G; KAU; Sheiref, A K
The study entitled “Organic farming as a strategy for climate change adaptation – An exploratory study” was carried out with the objectives to analyze the integrated adaptive capacity of organic farmers in comparison with conventional farmers through the development of a measurement tool, namely, Integrated Adaptive Capacity Index; to create a database of the certified organic farmers of Kerala and to explore the personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of the farmers and the agro-ecological characteristics of their farms for formulating a workable climate change adaptation strategy. The database of certified organic farmers in Kerala was prepared by collecting the information from the list of accredited certifying agencies in Kerala and PGS (Participatory Guarantee System) of India. The respondents were selected from the agro-ecological units having maximum number of certified organic farmers, namely, AEU9 - South central laterites and AEU11- Northern laterites and minimum number of certified organic farmers namely, AEU 1- Southern coastal plain and AEU13- Northern foot hills. Developing an index for measuring the Integrated Adaptive Capacity (IAC) of the farmers was one of the major achievements of the study. For that, the factors contributing to the Integrative Adaptive Capacity were identified as: socio- economic, technological, agricultural, managerial, bio-physical and ecological. Each factor of the adaptive capacity index was measured by summing up the scores of indicators delineated through pilot study, expert opinion and judges’ relevancy rating. The Integrated Adaptive Capacity (IAC) index was calculated as the composite measure of these six factors. The comparison of the mean scores of IAC index of organic (81.05) and conventional farmers (46.35) clearly indicated that there exists a significant difference between the two groups and the organic farmers were found to be more adaptive. The IAC index-based analysis revealed that majority (62%) of the organic farmers are of high adaptive capacity where as majority of the conventional farmers (56.1%) belonged to moderate adaptive capacity. The AE Unit wise comparison revealed that the farmers of South central laterites exhibited the highest IAC index, followed by the farmers of Southern coastal plain, Northern foothills and Northern laterites. Among the six IAC factors, socio- economic factor was found to be the most contributing followed by technological, agricultural, managerial, bio-physical and ecological. All these factors were found to be positively and significantly correlated with the IAC Index. The analysis of personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics indicated that majority of the farmers of the survey area belonged to middle aged category, medium level of annual income and possessed an area of 1 to 5 acres of land. Majority of the farmers were studied up to high school level with high farming experience and farming commitment. Most of the respondents were having medium level of mass media exposure, closeness with agricultural support system and self confidence. Majority of the farmers were found to have a low level of socio-political participation. The results indicated a positive and significant correlation between the integrated adaptive capacity index and the profile characteristics of the farmers except age. The major constraints as perceived by the farmers were: marketing problems (72.17%), lack of timely weather forecasts and its access to farmers (71.5%), risk due to uncertain weather parameters (69.77), inadequate storage and transportation facilities (64.54%), high cost of inputs (57.85%), inadequate labour availability (55.18%), inadequate input supply (48.93%), non- availability of organic inputs (48.55), inadequate institutional support (43.7%), lack of timely dissemination of appropriate technology (40.77%), lack of need based training programmes (40.53%), inadequate infrastructural facilities (40.13%) and lack of farmer participatory research (34.24%). Based on the study a workable climate change adaptation strategy is proposed at different levels such as: Farmer, Extension delivery system, Research and Government. The major strategies at farmer level included: adopting locally- relevant climate-smart agricultural practices, changing cropping pattern according to seasonal/ climatic variability/changes, application of organic inputs, insitu- resource utilization etc. The major strategies at extension delivery system level included: encourage rain water harvesting and recharging measures, making the farmer aware about the bio-physical resources of the farm, support livelihood diversification, promoting crop insurance, etc. The major strategies at research level included: Identify technologies with mitigation and adaptation synergies, developing climate resilient varieties, development of technologies to improve water productivity and water use efficiency, innovative technologies for value addition of agricultural products, undertaking researches related to climate change and adaptation/mitigation, etc. The major strategies at government level included: providing additional access to credit and saving mechanisms, establishing efficient transporting and marketing facilities avoiding middle men for getting reasonable income to the farmers, encourage education on how to reduce their emissions, awareness programmes for reducing GHG emission, carbon sequestration etc., disaster risk reduction and climate change in schools and farmer/worker organisations, provide funding for climate adaptation activities and research, etc. A comparison of the agro ecological profile of the farmers with highest IAC index indicated that organic farmers had better adaptation capacity for coping up with climate change. Thus, from the study it is concluded that, organic farming can be considered as one of the climate change adaptation strategies, as it optimally combines different practices in a systematic manner using limited resources, along with additional benefits of biodiversity and environmental services, leading to safe food production and sustainable livelihood support.

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