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Open Access
Participatory action research for renumerative rice production
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2004) Parvathy, S; KAU; Ahamed, P
As with the Complex, Diverse and Risk- prone (CDR) rice systems of many Asian countries, the Kerala state of peninsular India suffers from the fast depleting paddies and the ' high cost- low remuneration syndrome'. Crucial rice technologies have been blamed by stakeholders for the insensitivity to micro farming situations A multidisciplinary stakeholder Participatory Action Research (PAR) of emancipatory type and collaborative mode was done for three years (2001-2004) on identification and prioritization of constraints to profitable rice production to explore the available cost-reducing and productivity increasing technological options. The project focussed on screening of technological modules through farmer participatory field assessment and arrived at locally adaptable and remunerative technology packages. The project also developed and standardised an extrapolatable stakeholder participatory assessment model and protocol. The programme had a blend of extension approaches, research designs and tools like "ex-post facto", benchmark appraisal through Participatory Learning and Action (PLA), exploratory, diagnostic, evaluative, field experiments and analytical studies. The PAR was done in two rice ecosystems (irrigated and rainfe:l) of the midland, laterite belt of Kerala state, India. Fourteen technology modules were fitted into the PAR, under .. , each of the three treatments, viz., farmers' practice, recommended packages of the formal research system and location specific I technology components" jointly decided by the research team extensionists and farmers. Each technology component was subjected to five types of analysis viz., agronomic, statistical, economic, farmers perceptions and reactions, post-trial follow up analysis of adoption in the succeeding cropping seasons. The participatory interventions significantly influenced the level of technical knowledge and extent of adoption of adaptable technology modules, typifying the cognitive impact of an emancipating action research. The short duration red rice varieties "Kanchana" (Ptb 50) and "Kairali" (Ptb 49) proved to be the best first crop and second crop varieties respectively, to replace the ruling cultivars. The technology modules recommended by the formal research system viz., seed treatment with fungicides for the first crop season and Pseudomonas fluorescence for the second crop season were adaptable technologies. The PAR came out with an efficient planting density and crop geometry package (line transplanting; 15 x 10 cm; 67 . , hills/m'; 2-3 seedlings/hill) to replace the conventional planting system. The existing formal recommendations including IPM and INM practices could enhance and combat weeds, pest and diseases thereby enhancing crop yield. Harvesting with self- propelled reaper and threshing with mechanised thresher were cost effective, drudgery alleviating and time saving. The net result of the action research was a set of adaptable technological package for remunerative rice production in the CDR rice production systems. Cognitive and behavioural impact on the participants; and the standard methodology and protocol for participatory technology validation for rice in particular, and for any farm enterprise in general, with extrapolative effect.
Open Access
Evaluative perception of appropriateness of the recommended fertiliser management practices
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1989) Rasheed Sulaiman, V; KAU; Muraleedhara Prasad, R
A study was undertaken to investigate into the extent of knowledge, extent of adoption and evaluative perception of appropriateness of the recommended fertilizer management practices among rice farmers (n=200) and Agricultural Demonstrators (n=54) in Palghat and Cannanore Districts of Kerala State. The study revealed that farmers of Palghat and Cannanore differed significantly with respect to their knowledge and adoption of fertiliser management practices with farmers of Palaghat having higher level of knowledge and adoption
Open Access
Influence of leaders in the development of rural areas
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1981) Shilaja, S; KAU; Tampi, A M
Open Access
Study on adoption of soil conservation measures by farmers in scheme areas of Trivandrum District
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1978) Balakrishna Pillai, G; KAU; Nair, G T
The magnitude of the problem of soil erosion is so high in Kerala mainly due to the undulating topography and high intensity of rainfall. More than 10 lakhs hectares of undulating land have to be protected from the hazards of erosion by effective soil conservation measures . The results of studies conducted on the soil loss by the soil conservation station. Konni has shown that the soil loss where slope was 30 per cent was 241.56 tonnes per acre per year. Attempts are made to control the serious loss of top soil by the Department of Agriculture (Soil Coservation Unit) by implementing integrated soil conservation schemes. But the progress of coverage was poor. Even in scheme areas, many farmers are non -adopters of the required soil conservation works. Many farmers have not taken up the required Agronomy and Agrostology works eventhough theycompleted the contour bunding works. A detailed study was essential to understand all those aspects of adoption . This study was an effort in that direction.
Open Access
Study on the role of leadership in agricultural development in rural areas in Kerala
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture Vellayani, Trivandrum, 1979) Muthiah Manoharan, P; KAU; Thiagarajan Nair, G
This study on the role of leadership in agricultural development was designed to measure the role perception and 1 f role performance of different categories of leaders, as well as the factors associated with the role performance of leaders. This study was conducted in Arayoor I.P.D. Unit in Trivandrum District. This study covered five categories of leaders viz., Agricultural, Political, Co-operative, Ela committee and Panchayat leaders. The important findings were the following: 1. There was no significant difference among all categories of leaders regarding their age, educational level, communication skill, attitude towards agriculture and knowledge of the programme and improved agricultural practices. . 2. Agricultural and Ela committee leaders had higher farm size, higher income and had adopted more practices when compared to other categories of leaders. . 3* Agricultural, Panchayat and Co-operative leaders had high value orientation, high achievement motivation and had more favourable attitude towards high yielding varieties than other categories of leaders. 4. Co-operative leaders had more favourable attitude than other categories of leaders towards fertilizers* Panchayat, Agricultural and Political leaders had more favourable attitude than other categories of leaders towards plant protection. 5. Ela committee leaders had more mass media exposure than other categories of leaders. Ela committee, Agricultural and Panchayat leaders had more frequent contact with extension agency than other categories of leaders. ■ 6. The results revealed that Panchayat and Agricultural leaders had more perception of agricultural development roles than other categories of leaders. Agricultural leaders performed more roles in agricultural development than other categories of leaders. 7. When the pooled ranks were worked out the role "Accept improved agricultural practices before others" emerged as the most important role perceived as well as performed by the leaders. 8. Mass media exposure was significantly correlated with the role performance except in Political leaders. Caste also had influence in role performance. 9. Six variables viz., farm size, income, knowledge, mass media exposure, contact with extension agency and adoption behaviour were correlated, with role performance . significantly when the pooled data were considered. 10. Inter-correlation analysis lead to the conclusion that farm size had significant correlation with income, knowledge, mass media exposure, contact with extension agency and adoption behaviour. Income was significantly correlated with knowledge, mass media exposure, contact with extension agency and adoption behaviour. Knowledge was significantly correlated with contact with extension agency and adoption behaviour. There was also a significant correlation between mass media exposure and contact with extension agency. 11, It was also observed that the proportion of role performance explained by the variables viz., farm size, income, knowledge, mass media exposure, contact with extension agency and adoption behaviour was 50 percent.
Open Access
Women empowerment through group action in the kudumbashree programme of kerala: a multidimensional analysis
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Priya Devi, R; KAU; Mothilal Nehru, S
The study was aimed to assess the extent of eradication of poverty and the dimensions of empowerment in the Kudumbashree programme of Kerala government for poverty alleviation. The determinants of performance of Self Help Groups organized in neighborhood basis and their functional and structural analysis including the tangible and intangible benefits and constraints were also studied. Suggestions to enhance the efficiency of the Self Help Groups(SHGs) in agriculture and other sectors organized under the Kudumbashree programme were made. A sample of 300 respondents was selected at random from three districts of three regions of the state namely Thiruvananthapuram from south Kerala, Ernakulam from central Kerala and Malappuram from north Kerala which were selected randomly. In each district, 25 SHGs comprising 20 non-agriculture and 5 agriculture oriented SHGs were selected. The structural and functional analysis of Kudumbashree was carried out by Mc Kinsey procedure of SWOT analysis. The implementing category of personnel namely top management, middle management and grass-root functionaries and the selected SHG members were the respondents for the study. The nature, extent and style of functioning of Kudumbashree were studied with the above respondents.Besides, all implementing personnel working in the above three districts were also selected. Interactions with state level management personnel were done to elicit information regarding the study and also for triangulating findings. A sub sample consisting of five poorly performing SHGs from agriculture and non-agriculture sectors making total of ten SHGs on the basis of perception of the implementing officials and the result of the study were selected for in depth sub sample analysis and their limitations were stated. In the study it was assumed that the dependent variables poverty eradication and women empowerment were interrelated with the performance level of the groups having an intervening effect .A measurement scale for PEI was developed to measure extent of poverty eradication which was one of the dependent variable as a specific objective of the study. Poverty eradication index was the yardstick or standard to measure how far the Kudumbashree has alleviated the incidence of poverty among the members .The index consisted of eight constitutive factors and the cumulative expression of the scores in relation to the factors is the poverty eradication index of the respondent. The data was gathered by using the pre tested interview schedule / questionnaire developed for the study. Statistical tools used in the study were quartile deviation, mean, ANOVA and correlation analysis. Poverty eradication index score and empowerment score were given in quartile range to show the extent of poverty eradication and empowerment attained by the Kudumbashree programme. Categorisation was done in low, medium, high and over. As recorded in the study, regarding health care majority of the respondents were dependent on primary health care centre and the constraints felt were lack of supply of medicines, doctors not being available for ensuring timely medical care and the primary health centre located far away from the home. Nature of savings of respondents were with majority having group savings while post office savings, insurance and chitties were also reported.Borrowing pattern regarding the source of borrowing by the respondents showed only reliable institutional sources were used to avail loans by the majority.For purpose of borrowing repayment of debt was recorded as the highest felt need requiring borrowings followed by shelter renovation activities and health care need. Regarding the confidence of repayment majority reported they were confident of repayment while borrowing the amount. But 270 of them had experienced instances of inability to repay on time. 276 respondents of them had felt mental stress due to non repayment of borrowed amount on time. Access to safe drinking water and the source for drinking water as recorded in the study had half of the respondents having access to safe drinking water in their house premises itself. Regarding the vulnerability status of the respondents it was seen that majority of them had faced a situation were they have been unemployed for a month or more. They took loan or lent out assets in the situation. Regarding alcoholism 120 of respondents agreed that the earning male member of the family was alcoholic. Control over earnings had majority satisfied with the expenditure pattern of the family. Regarding entrepreneurial culture 60 of respondents had a temporary job while 99 had permanent job. 75 had reported to go to job daily while 60 had job availability sometimes only. All respondents had reported that they think the work undertaken by them was respectable in society. According to perception of respondents, repayment of loan and not possessing own home were the major factors of poverty while risk factors were damaged house or having no own house. The next constraint was recorded for having no or only one regular employed person in the family. Poverty eradication index ranged from a minimum of 19.51 in all three districts to a maximum of 60.53 in Thiruvananthapuram and 65.76 in both Ernakulam and Malappuram .The mean index was 41.26 in Thiruvananthapuram, 43.92 in Ernakulam and 41.07 in Malappuram. Thus a wide variation in the extent of poverty eradication was shown .The activities will have to be strengthened further to ensure appreciable alleviation of poverty. Empowerment index recorded a minimum of 29.70 in all three districts to a maximum of 86.07 in Thiruvananthapuram and 77.68 in both Ernakulam and Malappuram .The mean index was 55.10 in Thiruvananthapuram, 53.03 in Ernakulam and 51.36 in Malappuram. Regarding relationship between poverty eradication index and empowerment index, all three districts showed significant relationship in this study.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test showed significant results for empowerment index. Inferences from categorization of groups in the districts based on group performance index were that medium level of group performance was shown by majority of groups. In depth sub sample analysis had the following limitations identified. For the group doing rice farming, the owners are reluctant to lease out every season and processing units and storage facilities were absent. The members of the computer units had to meet extra expenses of electricity bill and the rent for the building from the income. Delay in payment of works undertaken for public purposes was reported. Marketing is a difficult task for coconut oil and for pappad making units.Drudgery, improper risk management, improper auditing and absence of diversification of crops were also reported. Design of the action program was done with formulation of plan for vegetable cultivation with College of Agriculture,Vellayani as source to get timely information, inputs and technical support.Execution of action program was done and impact assessed by proper monitoring of the process, identifying technological constraints with its solutions. SWOT analysis of Kudumbasree program showed that the localised social upliftment measures by community based organization, enhanced participation through meetings at home and the facilitation of women to enter public life was the major strengths. Productive usage of loan amount through canalised allotment of resources and holistic identification of poor not based on income/consumption but based on risk factors of poverty were the major strengths of the programme. The weaknesses of the programme recorded were leadership being influenced by political interference leading to corruption in work culture and intra group conflicts have been reported to limit the success of certain enterprises especially incase of consumptive usage of credit in absence of proper supervision. Lacks of enthusiasm among young members, cases of late approval of projects or absence of skill development for increasing the market competency were noticed. The opportunities of Kudumbasree program were establishment of social, security network for destitute rehabilitation and to increase the level of participation of members. The preparation of micro plan using the risk indices and problem identification mechanism were also opportunity. Small enterprises can be used for diversification and modernisation of rural economy and skill up gradation of general poor population. The threats include absence of quality control for ensuring market competency, dissipating enthusiasm and lack of proper tie up with line departments .Lack of autonomy in policy formulation lead to micro plan being not given due consideration. Charge officers are not provided technical up gradation for supporting the enterprises and the products lacked local market demand. Tangible and intangible benefits identified in the study were extension of decentralization process to further grass root levels, enhanced female control over earnings, diversification and modernisation of rural economy, sustainable maintenance of Kerala model of development, dependable and trust worthy social network generated, and the reduction in social discrimination and social evils. At the level of implementation of Kudumbasree program benefits were enhanced production lending in the groups than consumption lending, non economic risk indices in identification of the beneficiaries, the multifaceted frame work to alleviate root causes of poverty , reduction in under employment and educated unemployment followed by the provision of separate administration over centrally sponsored programs . The benefits at beneficiary level included constituting a working group for poverty reduction and the habit of savings first and credit later aiding to self dependence. The existence of a group fund gave members experience in money management and trust in people ensure repayment. Also enhanced food security by undertaking rice farming, participatory need based decision making and the ability of NHGs to act as a forum to share concern were other benefits. The major constraints in planning level were panchayaths not creatively participating in project design and micro enterprise planning followed by lack of symbolic policy formulation from part of State Government. Regarding the implementation level the major constraint was recorded as no remuneration paid for the activities undertaken by ADS and CDS Secretaries is followed by the enterprises not being matched with market demands or incompatible to daily routine of members. Mixing up the poor and non- poor in groups was a sure path to failure. Also some beneficiaries sell the productive assets for immediate financial benefit which limits timely repayment. Suggestions on the basis of the study were that rejuvenation and intensification of the Kudumbashree need appraisals and campaigns to limit exploitation in a target oriented manner. Policy formulations from State Government for investment in social capital have to be given more priority; sales promotion must be undertaken widely assisted with innovative enterprise planning and implementation. Technical support for finance management and common supply of raw materials like Bamboos at reasonable cost should be ensured. The stationery supply for canteens can also be organised in common basis by using the wide network generated. The link agents between NHGs and CDS should be ensured proper payment. Sustainability measures including marketing outlets and reduction in drudgery, the schedule for loan recovery specific to enterprise according to the pattern of returns and prevention of sale of assets purchased must be ensured. Proper representation of general problems by consolidation and prioritisation of such ideas to micro plans should be undertaken. More profitable enterprises involving more members by sharing of experiences must be done. Incentives for timely repayment, proper guidance and conflict management cell should be ensured. Suggestions to improve functioning of agriculture oriented groups is to develop a regulated system to pass on specification of the orders to units, timely supply of quality inputs like raw materials through proper channels should be undertaken. Documentation of activities can organize the activities in a scientific manner. Interested members should be motivated by trainings. Small scale units of diverse products with market demand like medicinal plants, vermicomposting and mushroom culture should be organized widely. Proper grading, hygiene and attractive packing to ensure market competency should be done within the local infrastructure available.
Open Access
Entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women in Thiruvananthapuram district
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Jayalekshmi, G; KAU; Shilaja, S
The present study under the title ''Entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women in Thiruvananthapuram district was undertaken to assess the entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women to study the personal and sociopsychological factors influencing entrepreneurial behaviour and the constraints experienced by the rural women in starting an enterprise. Rural women trained in mushroom cultivation and fruit and vegetable preservation were selected from College of Agriculture, Vellayani and Mitraniketan Vellanad. Thirty rural women each were selected from each centre for each enterprise. Thus 120 trained rural women were selected. Another 60 untrained rural women were also selected as control. Thus the total sample comprised of 180 with five groups of respondents. Data was collected using interview schedule and suitable statistical techniques were employed in the analysis of data. An entrepreneurial development index was developed and found that the factors such as economic motivation, risktaking ability, decision making ability, achievement motivation, management orientation, competition orientation and self confidence were the major dimensions of entrepreneurial behaviour. With regard to the profile of rural women, the rural women selected, both trained and untrained belonged to young age group and majority of them belonged to backward caste. Educational status and family educational status of the selected respondents were high school and above. More than 50 per cent of them have land holding ranging from 15-20 cents and annual income between Rs.15000-20000. More than 55 per cent of the rural women have taken up self employment. Above 50 per cent of the rural women have high information seeking behaviour, mass media contact, social participation, level of aspiration and attitude towards self employment. Majority of the rural women have low cosmopoliteness. Cent per cent of the trained rural women have high knowledge of the technology. Except rural women in group II & V all others have high entrepreneurial behaviour. Comparison of the five groups revealed that they were on par with respect to age, landholding, annual income and social participation. Majority of the trained rural women belonged to backward caste and untrained belonged to scheduled caste. The trained rural women differed significantly with the untrained in their educational status, family educational status, occupation, information seeking behavior and perceived knowledge of the technology. There was significant difference among the groups with respect to mass media contact, level of aspiration, cosmopoliteness and entrepreneurial behavior. Relationship of the personal and socio-psychological factors with the entrepreneurial behavior showed that in the case of group I, variables namely educational status of the family, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, level of aspiration, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology were positively and significantly correlated. In the case of group II, caste educational status of the respondents and family, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, social participation, level of aspiration, cosmopoliteness, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology were positively and significantly correlated with the entrepreneurial behavior. Only educational status of the family was found to have a positive and significant relationship with the entrepreneurial behavior of group III. In the case of group IV, caste, educational status of the respondent and family, annual income, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, cosmopoliteness, level of aspiration, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology were positively and significantly correlated with the entrepreneurial behaviour. In the case of group V a positive and significant relationship exists between entrepreneurial behavior and educational status of the respondent and family, annual income, information seeking behavior, mass media contact, social participation, cosmopoliteness, attitude towards self employment and perceived knowledge of the technology. With regard to the constraints experienced by the rural women, ‘Marketing problem and lack of financial assistance were the constraints in both the enterprises followed by non-availability of spawn in mushroom cultivation and high cost of fruits in fruit and vegetable preservation.
Open Access
Role of non-govermental organisations in transfer of technology for rural development- a study in Thrissur district
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1997) Indu, Bhaskar; KAU; Geethakutty, P S
A study was undertaken to analyse the effectiveness of NGOs in transfer of technology for rural development. It also aimed to identify the major programmes conducted by the selected NGOs and its consequences. The study was carried out in two selected NGOs, Kuriakose Elias Service Society (KESS) and Apex Voluntary Association for Rural Development (AVARD) of Thrissur district of Kerala during 1995-96. The sample selected for the study consisted of 100 beneficiaries, 60 non- beneficiaries, 30 NGO workers and 30 workers of other development agencies in Thrissur District. The study revealed that the major programmes of the NGOs were agri- cultural, health, HRD, community development and industrial and trade promotion programmes. The programmes consisted of components which aim at the desired changes like behavioural, health and hygiene, education, employment generation, ecological preservation, community development, leadership development, economic improvement, saftey and security, welfare, technology, self-reliance etc. which in general aimed at the overall development of rural community. Ninety per cent of the beneficiaries considered the consequences of programmes of NGOs as most beneficial to them. On analysing the respondents evaluative perception about the effectiveness of the NGOs, seventy three per cent of beneficiaries, twenty seven per cent of non-beneficiaries and ninety per cent of NGO workers and seventy per cent of development workers rated the NGOS as most effec- tive in rural development work. Significant characteristics of beneficiaries to predict their evaluative perception about the NGOs were farm size, annual income, level of aspiration and attitude towards NGOs. The beneficiaries of NGOs was significantly different from non-beneficiaries with regard to their farm size, extension contact, organisational participation, level of aspiration and attitude towards NGOs. The major constraints the NGOs face in their work for rural development were complexes of caste and religion among the rural people and lack of involve- ment from beneficiaries. The study draw attention to the emergent need of effective utilisation of the experiences and services of NGOs for rural development.
Open Access
Differential adoption of plant protection technology by farmers of Kerala - a critical analysis
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1995) Meera, B; KAU; Thyagarajan Nair, G
Indian agriculture has undergone intensive farming with the introduction of high yielding varieties of crops. Adoption of improved technology and management practices for boosting up production of food grains have resulted in serious pest and disease complexes warranting intensive and extensive use of plant protection chemicals. A number of limitations and adverse side effects such as pest resistance to pesticides, pesticide residues, health hazards, environmental pollution and ecological imbalance have been identified recently. The components of plant protection technology were taken to study the differential adoption in important crops like paddy and vegetables by the farmers and explained the variations in their cognitive, affective and connative components of behaviour with a selected set of independent variables. The study analysed the indigenous practices of plant protection being followed by farmers and also their perception about the impact of pesticides on environmental aspects. The major constraints experienced by the farmers in the adoption of plant protection technology along with the suggestions to overcome the same were also studied. The study was undertaken in two districts of Kerala viz., Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha. A sample of 120 farmers each from the two districts was selected and the total sample size for the study was 240.The data were collected using an interview schedule and analysed using suitable statistical techniques. There was significant difference among the farmers of Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha districts with regard to their knowledge about chemical and cultural methods of plant protection. Majority of farmers of both the districts belonged to low knowledge group. The farmers of both the districts were ignorant about biological, physical and integrated methods of plant protection methods. Majority of the farmers of both the districts possessed favourable attitude towards chemical method of plant protection. The farmers of Alappuzha district were significantly higher adopters of plant protection methods than the farmers of Thiruvananthapuram district. Majority of the farmers of both the districts belonged to low perception category with regard to their perception about the utility and practicability of plant protection methods. Crops yield index and scientific orientation emerged as significant independent variables in the correlation and multiple regression analysis with regard to the farmers of both the districts. The practices, viz., controlled application of nutrients for reducing pest and disease attack in paddy and use of ‘thulsikeni’ in ‘pandals’ to trap and kill fruit flies in vegetables were judged as the most effective and scientifically rational practices adopted by farmers. The farmer’s perception about the impact of pesticides on environmental aspects was very low and majority of them belonged to low perception category. The constraint ‘untimely supply and high cost of imputs’ was the most important constraint experienced by the farmers of Thiruvananthapuram district, while ‘lack of proper drainage facilities’ was the most serious constraint experienced by the farmers of Alappuzha District. The most important suggestion given by the farmers to overcome the constraints was to ‘develop simple and more compatible plant protection technologies’ and the most important suggestion given by the experts to overcome the constraints experienced by the farmers was to ‘impart adequate training to farmers as well as extension workers on IPM practices’. The strategic model developed by integrating the salient findings of the present study, emphasized the importance of popularizing effective plant protection technology among the farmers in ecologically sensitive rice and vegetable production systems in Kerala.

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