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Open Access
Effect of different shadings on the environmental parameters
(Department of Land and Water Resources and Conservation Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2006) Bindu, P K; KAU; Xavier, K Jacob
Controlled environment agriculture in the form of shade houses, greenhouses, low tunnels and cloches are being practised at commercial levels in many countries. Among these, cultivation under shades is an easier method which is widely used for growing ornamental plants. Considering the scope of cultivating vegetables under shade nets, the thesis entitled ‘Effect of different shadings on the environmental parameters’ was undertaken. Four shade structures of size 6 m x 4 m x 2 m were constructed at the instructional farm, KCAET, Tavanur. The shade nets tested were green and black shade nests providing 50% and 75% shade respectively. The effect of shades on the environmental parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation intensity and light intensity were studied. These parameters were compared with those in the open space. The temperature was reduced by the shade nets, but the reduction was only in the range of 0.5 to 4°C. The temperature under the black nets was higher than that under the green nets. The relative humidity was higher under the shade nets than in the open space. Also the RH under the green nets is higher compared to that under the black nets. The solar radiation intensity and the light intensity were reduced by the nets in varying ranges. The light intensity and solar radiation intensity under the black nets were very less compared to the green nets. The equations developed give a clear idea about the variation in environmental parameters under the shade nets. The growth of tomato was better in the open space than under the shades. The growth of and yield of amaranthus was better under the G50 shade net. The growth and yield of amaranthus grown in the open space was better compared to those obtained under the G75, B50 and B75 nets.
Open Access
Optimal planning of wind farms using wera model integrated with gis
(Department of Power Machinery and Engineering, Tavanur, 2006) Devanand, U Gorate; KAU; Sathyajith, Mathew
The present study brings out a systematic procedure for Optimal planning and laying out wind turbine at prospective wind farm site. The Wind Energy Resource Analysis (WERA) model was used here for the wind energy analysis and turbine performance simulation. WERA model was validated using long term as well as short term field performance data from Kanjikode wind farm, Palakkad, Kerala. The velocity-power proportionality for the three bladed horizontal axis wind turbine at the wind farm was computed as 1.75. Wind energy potential of 10 prospective sites were analyzed using WERA among which 5 sites were short listed for possible wind farm activities. The short listed sites are Kayattar, Rameshwarm, Kanjikode, Sultanpet and Andipatti. Performance of a 2 MW commercial wind turbine at these sites was simulated using WERA software. An interlinking programme correlating the result of above analysis with GIS was developed. Economics of wind energy conversion systems at these sites was estimated using above programme. It was found that the cost of wind energy in a kWh basis ranges from Rs.1.28 toRs.1.72 at the short listed sites. Based on economic viability, the site Kayattar was finally selected for the wind farm activity. Considering the wind potential and site constraints, a method was developed for micro-siting of the turbine at this site using Geographical Information System. Accordingly, elevation contour map, digital elevation model, velocity map, distance from boundary map, cut velocity map, suitability map and location map were developed. Optimal locations of the turbines for a 20 MW wind farm at this site were identified. Energy yield of individual turbines installed at the site were computed using WERA software. The total energy output of the wind farm is found to be 45927605.9 MWh.
Open Access
Groundwater augmentation plan for a degraded western ghat terrain using remote sensing and GIS
(Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2007) Sooraj, Kannan P V; KAU; Mathew, E K
The safe development of groundwater resource primarily depends upon the groundwater recharge. Artificial ground water recharge is essential in terrains with low natural groundwater recharge. Availability of non-committed runoff, hydrogeologically favourable area for recharge and site specific design of artificial recharge structures are the major requirements of an artificial groundwater recharge system. A quantitative evaluation of spatial and temporal distribution of groundwater recharge is a prerequisite for operating groundwater resource management system in an optimal manner. While enjoying a humid tropic climate with heavy rainfall, Kerala also faces acute shortage of fresh water during the summer season, especially in the high range areas. In this study, an effort is taken to prepare a groundwater augmentation plan for a highly degraded Western Ghats terrain, the Siruvani sub basin ofBhavani river basin. Plan includes the evaluation of spatiotemporal distribution of natural groundwater recharge, delineation of land slide resistant hydro-geologically suitable areas for artificial recharge and to suggestspecific recharge structures adapted to the terrain characters. Using Thornthwaite-Mather water balance method, the spatiotemporal distribution of groundwater recharge was prepared and natural ground water recharge in the watershed was estimated. Penman method and NRCS curve number methods were employed for generating the water balance parameters. Monthly natural recharge varies from 0 to 44 Mm3. the total annual natural recharge was found as 158 Mm3. By analysing the infiltration rate, geology, geomorphology, rechargeable depth, slope and drainage density, land use, relative relief, soil depth etc., hydrogeologically potential areas for groundwater recharge systems and land slide prone areas were delineated through GIS weighted overlay analysis. Land slide prone areas were excluded from potential recharge areas. 46.78% of total area was found to be favourable for artificial recharge. The most suitable recharge structures suitable for the hard rock hilly terrains viz, check dams, subsurface dykes, recharge wells, runoff harvesting structures are suggested and suitable locations for the specific recharge measures were delineated.
Open Access
Subsurface drip irrigation of ladies finger in sandy loam soil
(Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2007) Nisha, T V; KAU; Asha, Joseph (Guide)
Placing water beneath the soil surface via buried drip lines is slowly becoming the preferred choice of many farmers. No doubt the use of subsurface drip irrigation technology may well be the future of irrigation in the coming years and decades. It holds the promise of reducing the weed growth, fertilizer and chemical use, labour requirement and optimizing water use. Subsurface drip irrigation is an advanced and recent revolutionary variation of drip irrigation. The aim of drip irrigation design is to ensure uniform distribution of water to the crop with pre-determined application of water. Therefore, for uniform outflow from emitter, information on their hydraulic characteristics is very vital. The system is comparatively costly and prone to clogging. It is therefore necessary to evaluate the performance in the field and see whether their performance is meeting the design expectations. Hence the present study was undertaken to analyze the hydraulics of subsurface inline drip irrigation system, soil moisture distribution pattern, the effect of depth of installation of laterals and levels of irrigation on growth and yield of ladies finger and to compare the performance of surface and subsurface drip irrigation. In this study five depths of installations (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm) and three levels of irrigation were studied (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 lit/ day/ plant). The subsurface drip irrigation system was tested for their hydraulic performance in the field at five depths of installations of 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm in terms of pressure-discharge relation, emission uniformity, manufacturing coefficient of variation, friction factors, Reynolds number and application efficiency. The discharge from emission points were collected at seven different operating pressures ranging from 0.3 to 1.8 kg/cm2. The power function was found to be good in explaining the discharge exponent in deciding the flow regime. The discharge exponent for the power function was found 0.7717, 0.7266, 0.5973, 0.5416 and 0.5325 for respectively 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm which suggested an orifice type turbulent flow emitter for the present inline dripper. The emission uniformity values of the system were found to range between 74 and 94 % at different depths of installation and varying pressure indicating average to excellent performance. The manufacturing coefficient value (Cv) was found to be vary between 6.2 and 20 , as the pressure varies from 0.3 to 1.8 kg/cm2. This indicated an average to marginal performance of the inline dripper. The Reynolds number increased from 1460 to 6237 for the lateral pipe size of 16 mm with increase in inlet pressure from 0.3 to 1.8 kg/cm2 and it also increased with increase in depth. This confirms that the turbulence of flow increases with increase in pressure. The average values of friction factor decreases from 0.0382 to 0.0365 for the same pressure of 1.5 kg/cm2 as the depth increases from 0 to 20 cm. It was also found that as the pressure increases the friction factor decreases. The application efficiency increased with pressure and was not much affected by depth of installation of laterals. The soil moisture distribution pattern was found to follow a bulb shape in all the contours. The maximum moisture content observed at the emitter position were 19, 24, 25, 22 and 22 % respectively for 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm depths of installation half an hour after irrigation. The maximum depletion was found at zero depth of installation after 24 hrs of irrigation, while the same was considerably reduced in the deeper installations. The best moisture distributions were observed at 10 and 15 cm depths of installation after 24 hrs of irrigation. A field study was conducted to study the effect of depth of installation and levels of irrigation on growth and yield of ladies finger in sandy loam soil. The highest fruit yield obtained was 8.1 t/ha for the treatment D3I2 ie, the depth of installation 10 cm and the level of irrigation 1.5 lit/day/plant. Water use efficiency was found 11.24 kg/ha mm for the treatment D3I2. The analysis on biometric observations also showed that the height, thickness and number of leaves of the plant were found high at D3I2. Hence the subsurface drip irrigation with 10 cm depth of placement of laterals and 1.5 lit/day/plant of irrigation was considered as the best treatment for okra in sandy loam soil. The maximum horizontal and vertical movement of water front in the root zone of okra was found 37.5 cm and 52.5 cm respectively. The moisture movement was observed to go beyond the maximum vertical and lateral spread of roots which indicated that the plant never had any water stress during the crop period under subsurface drip. Therefore it is clear that the adoption of subsurface drip technology should be enthusiastically pursued as an appropriate technology to deal with increasing demand of water, environmental, ecological and economic concerns
Open Access
Grey water treatment by constructed wetland
(Department of Land and Water Resources and Conservation Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2007) Abhijeet, Hindurao Surve; KAU; Rema, K P (Guide)
Next to air, water is the most important requirement for human life to exist. With growing population and industrial development, demand of fresh water is increasing. Hence every community should take preventive measures to avoid careless pollution and contamination of the available water resources and reuse the waste water after treating it. For this, on-site grey water treatment with constructed wetland is the cheapest and practical option. To verify the performance of subsurface flow constructed wetland (SCW) for treatment of grey water in climatic conditions of Kerala, the present study was conducted at the instructional farm of KCAET, Tavanur. The experimental scale SCW system for discharge of 110 l/d was designed and constructed with MS sheet as per the USEPA procedure for influent BOD5 of 85 mg/l and expected effluent BOD5 of 5 mg/l. The SCW system was filled with crushed brick, fine river sand mixed with lime and crushed stones in the inlet, filtration and outlet section respectively. SCW system was planted with Canna macrophyte. Raw grey water from the men’s hostel of KCAET was diverted to low lying SCW system site with the use of gravitational force to avoid pumping and energy consumption for the same. The performance of SCW system for removal of TSS, BOD5, total nitrogen, sulphates and phosphates were studied by analysing the influent and effluent grey water samples from the SCW system. On an average the influent concentrations of these parameters were 132 mg/l, 70 mg/l, 14 mg/l, 32 mg/l and 0.17 mg/l respectively while the same for effluent was 5 mg/l, 4 mg/l, 1.2 mg/l, 8 mg/l and 0.00 mg/l respectively. In all the samples the TC counts in influent water were ≥2400 MPN/100ml while it was ≤2 MPN/100ml in the effluent from the SCW system. Excellent reduction of 90 % or above in TSS, BOD5, total nitrogen, phosphates and TC was observed and it may be due to use of fine river sand mixed with lime as filter media and Canna as a macrophite. The effect of HRT on the efficiency of removal of these parameters was studied by storing the raw grey water in SCW system for the required period of time. Statistical ANOVA calculations for HRT study show the significant effect of same on % reduction of these elements. Furthermore the extent of significance was checked with Tukey’s test and it was concluded that to have significant difference in observations the interval between successive observations should be 3 days or more. The effect of raw and treated grey water irrigation on Amaranthus and Golden Duranta plants was demonstrated by irrigating these plants in clay pots. For the Amaranthus plants irrigated with raw grey water, observed average height, number of leaves, stem thickness, canopy spread and yield were 38 cm, 51, 9 mm , 826 cm2 and 158 gm while the same was 51 cm, 71,12 mm, 1573 cm2 and 296 gm respectively for the plants irrigated with effluent from the SCW. Statistical analysis with ‘student’s t’ test showed significant difference for the height, number of leaves, and yield at 1 % level of significance and for stem thickness and canopy spread at 5 % level of significance. The Golden Duranta plants irrigated with raw and treated grey water shows significant difference in height and canopy spread at 5 % level of significance. Besides this raw grey water irrigated plants show discolouration and leaf burning. Hence it was concluded that the raw grey water irrigation is not effective for these plants. From the entire study it was concluded that the SCW system is the reliable option for on-site grey water treatment. This ecological treatment system can reduce many objectionable pollutants from waste water to great extent and make it available for secondary uses. Also it has potential to reduce the health risk due to avoidance of mosquitoes and other undesirable insects.
Open Access
Feasibility studies on the use of precision porous pipes for subsurface irrigation
(Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2007) Eugine, Spicer J; KAU; Leaven, K V (Guide)
Irrigation technology envisages the development of irrigation systems that uses water more effectively for plants. The process of subsurface drip irrigation was conceived with this objective. One of the subsurface irrigation types is the porous pipe irrigation. This is a relatively new technology and an evaluation is necessary to assess the suitability for Indian crops and conditions. With this objective, the discharge evaluation of porous pipe irrigation was done in the laboratory and field for Amaranthus spp., to find out the moisture distribution and the optimum depth of installation. The study was conducted at KCAET, Tavanur entitled "Feasibility Studies on the Use of Precision Porous Pipes for Subsurface Irrigation". The chosen variety for the field study was Kannara local which was popular in the region. Three depths of placement of porous pipes were chosen for the study ie 10, 15 and 20 cm with and without sand envelope. The treatments also comprised paired and double paired row with three replications each. A drip irrigation plot with two treatments and a control plot were kept for comparing the yield, water use efficiency and the cost economics. The type of soil found in the study area was sandy loam. It has a bulk density of 1.68 gm/cc and the infiltration rate of the soil was 5.2 cm/hr. The coefficient of variation of the porous pipe was 13.98% and the emission uniformity was 82.60 %. Among porous pipe treatments, the water use efficiency was highest in the treatment with sand envelope and paired row planting at the depth of placement 20 cm. The water use efficiency of drip irrigated treatment for double paired row planting was higher than that for porous pipe irrigated treatments. The average distribution efficiency of porous pipe in the field was 86.72%, 24 hours after irrigation and that of drip irrigation was 76.2 %. The optimum operating pressure for porous pipe irrigation system under field conditions was found to be 0.2 kg/cm2 when the discharge was a minimum with less energy requirement. The discharge in the field under this condition was 1.27 lph/m. From the statistical analysis, we find that there is no significant difference in yield between the treatments with and without sand envelope. Hence we conclude that for amaranthus, sand envelope is not essential in sandy loam soil. The maximum yield of Amaranthus was obtained from porous pipe irrigation from 20 cm depth of spacing with sand envelope in paired row planting in sandy loam soil. The cost of installation of different irrigation systems was evaluated. It was found that the porous pipe irrigation with paired row spacing incurred the maximum expenditure.
Open Access
Evaluation of low-cost lining materials for field channels
(Department of Land and Water Resources and Conservation Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2000) Abdu, Mudesir Issa; KAU; Reema, K P
Seepage losses from field channels are too high, making surface irrigation the inefficient method of water application. The high cost of lining hindered the use of most of the common lining materials for lining field channels. With an objective of identifying and testing low cost lining materials for field channels, a study was conducted at K.C.A.E.T., Tavanur. Four low-cost materials were tested in the experiments. The physical property tests on different RHA-cement types showed that the waterpercentages required to attain standard consistency of the RHA-cements ranged between 58.33 to 58.53. The mean initial setting times observed were ranging from 55.67 min, for RHA-20, to 241.39 min., for RHA-40. The final setting times ranged between 397.74 and 600.36 min. The compressive strengths of the RHA-cement made mortars were determined after 3, 7, 14, and 28 days of curing. The two factor analyses of variance revealed that both the days of curing and RHA-cement types were sources of variation. RHA-20 mortars were significantly weaker than RHA-25 and RHA-30 mortars for 7 days of curing, and for 14 and 28 days of curing a significant difference in the compressive strengths ofRHA-20 and RHA-30 was observed. The average seepage rates were obtained as 3.536, 92.786, 356.278, 26.190 and 633.296 Vm2/day for plastic, RHA-30, Kaolinitic clay, Bentonite lined and the unlined channels respectively. The respective steady seepage rates from plastic, RHA-30, Kaolinitic clay, Bentonite lined and the unlined channels were 0.984, 72.283, 260.256, 12.530 and 433.886 Vm2/day. Plastic lining saved 99.774 per cent of the seepage as compared le. ti:,unlined. RHA-20, RHA.:.25, and RHA-40 linings respectively were having steady seepage rates of 150.917,11.959, 101.161 lIm2/day and saved 65.377, 74.315, and 76.792 of the seepage against the control.The RHA-30 lined surface was the smoothest with a roughness coefficient of 0.01853, the same were 0.0236, 0.0255, 0.02497 and 0.0238 respectively for plastic, Kaolinitic clay, Bentonite and unlined surfaces. The total number of weeds grown on plastic, RHA-30, Kaolinitic clay, Bentonite and unlined surfaces respectively were 294, 7, 287, 163,and 547. The initial costs of constructing I Km length of field channel were obtained as Rs.54657.86, 83008.84, 68062.50, 81490.31 and 21000.00 for plastic, RHA-30, Kaolinitic clay, Bentonite and unlined channels respectively. The actual cost required to construct the five 10 m channels with plastic, RHA-30, Kaolinitic clay, Bentonite linings and with out lining respectively were Rs. 548.40, 832.15, 618.45, 1330.08 and 210.00. From the overall compansons of water tightness" surface roughness, weed controlling ability, structural stability, durability and cost RHA-30 lining was found to be the best among the tested lining materials. A combination type lining using plastic and RHA-cement as a cover will probably be an ideal lining, as each can complement the shortcomings of the other.
Open Access
Effect of seal formation due to cattle manure application on infiltration and runoff
(Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2003) Rakesh, K N; KAU; Abdual Hakkim, V M
The application of soil amendment is one of the major management practices in farming operations. Nowadays, the importance of manure application as a soil amendment is increasing due to the increased concern for the ecology and environment its abundance in availability and low cost. The manures are rich in organic matter content and other nutrients. It changes the physical properties of the soil. But the excess application of organic manure may lead to detrimental results due to the surface seal formation. Hence, the present study attempts to assess the effect of seal formation due to cattle manure application on infiltration and runoff. In the coarse textured soils, like sandy loam soil the infiltration rate will be reduced and runoff will be increased. But in the fine textured soils, like clay loam soil, the infiltration rate will be increased and runoff will be reduced. The contents of the nutrients like nitrogen, organic matter and total solids in the runoff water and the physical properties like bulk density will increase with the increase in manure application and rainfall intensity. Hence it was concluded that, while applying manure on the field, the rate of application of the manure can be determined only after determining the soil texture and rainfall intensity. Otherwise, the manure application will be results in pollution of nearby water bodies.
Open Access
Optimal water use and cropping pattern for Thrithala regulator-cum-bridge project
(Department of Land and Water Resources and Conservation Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2001) Saritha, E K; KAU; Sathian, K K
Reservoir projects involve huge financial investment and hence, every drop of water stored in the reservoir must be utilised very judiciously. Allocation of water in the case of multi-purpose projects among various competing needs such as drinking water, irrigation, pisciculture, downstream flow, etc. is a matter of great concern. Hence, formulation of optimal operational policies for reservoirs has become highly essential to improve their financial viability, social acceptability and overall performance. So a study has been undertaken for a regulator-cum-bridge under construction at Thrithala in Palakkad district of Kerala state in Indian peninsular with the specific objectives of determining the optimum water allocation of the reservoir for meeting various demands on it and obtaining the optimum cropping pattern for the command area. A linear programming model was formulated to optimize the reservoir operation of the multipurpose project with the objectives of Drinking water demand, Irrigation demand, Pisciculture demand, and Downstream flow demand, in the order of priority. The deviations of the allocations from the targets to be achieved were minimized by introducing penalty coefficients to each deviation according to their order of priority. Using the irrigation allocation from this model, another Linear Programming model was formulated to obtain the optimal cropping pattern for the command area. Both models were solved using Excel Solver software package. The optimal operational plan and the optimal cropping. pattern obtained were compared with the operating plan and cropping pattern proposed by the irrigation department. The optimal operation plan with the incorporation of additional objectives was found to be more socially acceptable and economically viable. The optimal cropping pattern showed that there is more than 100% increase both in the net benefit as well as in the net area irrigated.

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