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ThesisItem Open Access Economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Hema, M; KAU; Indira Devi, P.Mangroves are invaluable treasure o f our biodiversity with immense ecological and economic significance. But mangroves wealth of the world is depleting at an annual rate of -0. 34 per cent. Mangroves in Kerala, constitute 0.3 per cent o f that in India, is reported to be high in species diversity. The available reports indicate the depleting status o f the ecosystem in Kerala too. The socio-economic and ecological significance o f this ecosystem is to be studied in detail for assisting policy decisions when confronted with the conservation-development debate. This study was undertaken in this background. The study identified the stakeholders o f mangrove ecosystems o f Kerala and quantified the level o f dependence o f local communities for their livelihood and estimated the aggregate demand for products and services. Further, it identified and quantified the relative influence o f socioeconomic, institutional, climatic and anthropogenic forces on the destruction of mangroves and finally assessed the Total Economic Value (TEV) o f mangrove system and suggested policy prescriptions for the conservation and management of mangroves in Kerala. The study was conducted in the mangrove areas o f Emakulam and Kannur districts of Kerala. These two districts accounted for nearly 65 per cent o f the mangroves o f the state. The study was based on primary and secondary data. The primary data was gathered from 480 respondents belonging to four identified stakeholder groups (residents, fishermen, paddy farmers and general public), selected through simple random sampling method. Data was collected through personal interview using structured pretested interview schedule along with direct observation. The major tools of data analysis were Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Choice experiment. The data collection was conducted during June 2012 to January 2013. I Four stakeholder groups o f the mangrove ecosystem in the study area were residents living close to mangroves (<1 km from mangroves), fishermen (inland fishermen and women, engaged in shell mining and clam collection, shrimp farmers), paddy farmers (Pokkali and Kaippad) and general public (resides away from the mangroves). The residents were depending on the mangroves for extraction o f fuel wood, fodder and poles. On an average the level o f extraction was 307 kg o f fuel wood, 1024 kg of fodder and 14(no.) o f poles per year valued at X 4628/household. This amounted to 3 per cent o f their annual household income. The major species o f fish catch by the fishermen were Etroplus, shrimp, crab and Tilapia which was quantified at 1553 kg/ year valued at X 1,41,045. Shell mining which was found to be a major economic activity in Kannur region could generate an income of X 30,000/annum through the extraction and sale o f 7500 kg o f shells. Clam collected was quantified at 225 kg/year valued at X 5625. Thus, the average gross income from these activities was estimated at X 1,77,164 per year which was the main source o f income for the household. About 8 per cent of the fishermen were involved in shrimp farming and were mainly from Kannur district. The size o f the farm varied from 0.4 to 2 ha. The input cost/ha was X 2.8 lakhs which includes cost o f seed, feed, lime and water management. Labour cost was estimated at X 77,000. Hence total cost and returns o f shrimp farming/ha was X 3.27 and 4.75 lakhs respectively with net income o f ? 1.48 lakhs. Pokkali and Kaippad agricultural systems are proved to be closely interconnected with the:.mangrove ecosystem and the per hectare gross returns was X 60,007 and X 40,935 respectively. This amounted to average 30 per cent o f their household income. The respondents’ perception on the pattern of change and the major factors that effected the change in mangrove ecosystem was studied based on their responses. 46 per cent o f the respondents were o f the opinion that the mangrove ecosystem has declined over years and facing threat. The major factors responsible for the same were reported as anthropogenic, climatic forces and status o f property rights. The 11 developmental interventions like LNG Petronet Terminal, Puthuvypeen and ICTT Vallarpadam has resulted in large scale conversion o f mangrove areas. The contradictory forces o f development and conservation led to destruction of mangrove ecosystem. One fifth respondents opined that climatic factors were responsible for the decline. Nearly 85 per cent of the mangroves in the state were reported to be under private ownership and rest under public. The property right status along with economic status influences the rate o f depletion. The legal interventions and community and institutional efforts also influence the status of mangroves, most often positively. The economic valuation of ecological benefits o f mangroves was attempted employing the Contingent Valuation Method. The respondents expressed their willingness to contribute towards conservation both in cash and kind (cash payment and manual participation as labour and as volunteer in awareness programmes) and in combination. The average WTP expressed by the respondents was f 2308/annum the range being ? 50-28,870. The TEV of the mangrove ecosystem of the state was thus ? 1,17,947 million, which was 0.14 per cent ofthe GSDP (2011-12). A socially preferred management plan was identified among a set of alternatives, employing the choice experiment method. Among the management options given, the stakeholders preferred community management (41.6%) followed by public management (29.2%) and status quo (21.4%). The community management of the mangrove ecosystem provides opportunity for the local community to participate in management decision process. At the same time, the importance o f public funding for such activities is revealed in the analysis. The study suggests initiating scientific attempts on realistic area estimation and mapping o f the mangrove resources in the state. There should be attempts to identify and classify the species and document the traditional wisdom associated with them. Region specific studies are needed to establish and quantify the extent of association between mangrove ecosystem and the livelihood activities of local communities. The TEV justifies the increased resources allocation for the conservation efforts. Further, the implementation of community management system as institutional form for mangrove management in the state is suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Impact of Mahatma Gandhi national rural employment guarantee scheme (MGNREGS) on agricultural labour market(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Seenath, Peedikakandi.; KAU; Prema, AMahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is the flagship programme implemented by the Government of India, assuring 100 days of work for every rural household who are willing to do unskilled manual work. The scheme was initially implemented in February, 2006 and later on extended to all over rural India. The objective of the scheme is to enhance livelihood security of rural households by creation of durable assets. Budget allocation under the scheme during 2011-12 was `40,000 crores. This study analyzes the supply side effects of the scheme on agricultural labour, wages and farm income and provides suggestions for betterment of agriculture. The study was carried out in Palakkad district of Kerala. Multistage purposive sampling procedure was adopted to select the sampling units. The criteria of maximum lead in implementing MGNREGS and maximum area under paddy cultivation formed the basis for selection of block panchayats and grama panchayats. Random selection of 20 beneficiaries and 20 farmers from each grama panchayat was done for eliciting information. In addition, MGNREGS officials, work supervisors and people’s representatives were also chosen, thus making a total sample of 120. Personal interviews and focused group discussions were used to gather data. The data pertaining to the financial year 2005-06 and 2011-12 was compared for deriving the inferences. More than 90 per cent of the total fund was used for works like water conservation and water harvesting, micro irrigation, renovation of traditional water bodies and land development. There is no supply of labour under the scheme in individual land owned by small and marginal farmers during the study period. Regular cultivation practices and individual lands of large farmers are not included under the scheme. The average annual work days of the beneficiaries have increased from 67 to 85 (26.87%) after the implementation of the scheme and their annual income has increased from ` 3,069/- during 2005-06 to `7,568/- (147%) during 2011-12. Mean annual work days of the beneficiaries in agricultural sector had decreased from 65 to 20 and the income of beneficiaries from agricultural works also had decreased from `3116/- to `1810/-. Regression analysis showed that MGNREGS participation and agricultural works participation are inversely related, with a co-efficient of 0.19. MGNREGS wage has increased from `125/- to `150/- per day during the study period (20%). The wage rate for agricultural works is showing an upward trend linked with MGNREGS wage hike. Agricultural wage rate for women workers has registered 200 per cent increase from `50/- to `150/- per day. Though the MGNREGS wage rate is linked with the statutory minimum wage rate of the state, the latter remained unchanged from 2008 (`150/- per day). Total labour requirement for cultivation of paddy has decreased from 82 to 71 man days per hectare (15.5%). Male labour availability has decreased by 50 per cent and women labour availability 60 per cent. Hired human labour component, which accounted for 49.3 per cent of the total cost of cultivation during 2005-06 has fallen to 44 per cent. Functional analysis using the Cobb-Douglas model indicated that the elasticity of production due to labour input has decreased from 1.16 to 1.12. Delay in getting labourers on time and fall in quality of work are perceived as the major constraints by the farmers. Delay in getting payment and over lapping of agricultural and MGNREGS works are the major problems faced by the beneficiaries. Formation of stakeholder group for work scheduling, implementation of one time land development works like field leveling and re-sizing under MGNREGS and utilization of remaining labour days for agricultural works by providing training for machine operations are suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics , College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Hema, M; KAU; Indira Devi, P