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Economics of banana cultivation in Trichur district
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1983) Indira Devi, P; KAU; Mukandan, K
This investigation on economics of banana cultivation in Trichur district was conducted during 1983.The study confined to irrigated nendran banana in Chalakudy block with the following objectives viz. to estimate cost and returns; to evaluate resource use efficiency in production; and to study the problems of banana growers. Ninetyeight holdings were selected by following the stratified two stage random sampling technique and the information was collected using a pretested schedule, through personal interview. The total cost of cultivation (cost C) of banana worked out to Rs.41814.13 per hectare. Of this, the most important item of expenditure was human labour. Average labour requirement for banana cultivation was 702.96 mandays per hectare. This was followed by expenditure on manures, fertilizers, propping materials, suckers and irrigation. All of the farmers in the locality applied chemical fertilizers though not upto the recommened level. Plant protection expenses were only 0.30 per cent of total cost. In the operationwise expenditure, manures and manuring operations demanded highest investment and formed 42.50 per cent of total cost. Propping, planting, after cultivation and irrigation, harvesting and handling and preparatory cultivation in that order were the other operations which needed investment. Plant protection operations accounted for 0.92 per cent of total cost. The average returns from banana cultivation were Rs.65011.90 per hectare. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs.23,197.77 per hectare with a benefit cost ratio of 1.55. On a per plant basis, the average cost of producing a bunch was Rs.14.31 and it gave a return of Rs.26. In the linear production function model fitted, plant population and expenditure on labour were the factors which had significant influence on the dependent variable viz. total returns. The former had a positive influence and for the latter the influence was negative. The same model was fitted for the data converted to a per plant basis. The analysis revealed that the farmers were using labour over and above the optimum level. So its use has to be restricted.
Open Access
Impact of the coconut rehabilation programme of SADU in Trivandrum district
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1984) Lekshmi Narayanan Nair, N; KAU; Radhakrishnan, V
This study was conducted in 1983 to assess the impact of the Coconut Rehabilitation Programme implemented in Trivandrum District as part of the World Bank assisted, Kerala Agricultural Development project. The specific objectives were to examine the extent of utilization of loans, the improvements in cropping pattern and farming practices, changes in yield rates and output and the increase in farm income generated by this programme. The relative efficiency of irrigation and the various intercrops in augmenting the net farm incomes of the participating farmers was compared and the major constraints in improving coconut farming in the district were also identified as a part of this study. Data were collected from a sample of 96 participating farmers selected at random from the 14 Package Units functioning in the district under this project through personal interview using a well structured schedule. The main findings of the study are summarized below. Majority of the holdings (51.03 per cent) were in the category of less than 0.80 hectare but they accounted for only 27.36 per cent of the area covered. Holdings of 0.80 hectare and above predominated (59.26 per cent) in the category of irrigated holdings. About 49 per cent of the households depended on non-agricultural pursuits for their main source of income. Eighty per cent of the families were relatively small in size with a membership of less than 7. The overall average investment estimated, sanctioned and spent per hectare for the 96 holdings under study worked out to Rs. 17923.05, Rs.14393.67 and Rs.14959.57 respectively. Though the overall performance in respect of loan utilization was satisfactory, there was shortfall in utilization of loans under Cocoa (58 per cent), coconut gapfilling (41 per cent), purchase of Cows (23 per cent) and Fodder Development (17 per cent). The percentage of utilization of loans in the case of unirrigated category was low (50.18) compared to the irrigated category (122.43). Among the lending institutions through which the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development funds were channelised, Primary Co-operative Land Mortgage Bank was the most acceptable agency (61 per cent). The cropping intensity of the sample increased from 111.77 per cent to 189.87 per cent consequent on the implementation of the programme. The area under coconut, banana, cocoa and fodder increased while that under tapioca decreased. The density of coconut palms increased from 125 palms per hectare to 176 palms. This is against the project objective of attaining an optimum stand of 175 healthy and high-yielding coconut palms. By and large the target set for intercropping programme as per the individual farm production plans has been achieved. The target was exceeded in respect of banana (119.3 per cent) coconut (103.34 per cent) and cocoa (101.2 per cent). Tapioca continued to be the intercrop widely preferred by the coconut growers (192.75 per cent). Shortfall was mainly in the coverage of area under fodder (18 per cent) and livestock to be purchased (36 per cent). The project has been instrumental in stepping up substantially the level of use of various inputs including irrigation. Fifty four holdings had the benefit of irrigation covering 62 per cent of the net area covered by the sample, while in 13 cases though irrigated development was contemplated, it had not been successful due to operational constraints such as failure to obtain electric connection, failure of wells etc. The average cost of a pumpset with accessories worked out to Rs. 8717.68 while the average amount sanctioned under the lending programme was only Rs.7715 per pumpset. The intensity of senile and uneconomic palms as revealed by the study was only 3.6 palm per hectare against the projection of 20 palms per hectare assumed in the project report. Out of 388 palms identified for cutting and removal only 77 were actually removed. Though the target in respect of gap filling has been exceeded by planting 4790 seedlings against the target of 4762 seedlings, the maintenance of the seedlings was not upto the standard. The increase in use of organic manure for coconut from 17 to 48 kg per palm is commendable. But the use of organic manure for the intercrops is deplorably low especially for banana (6 kg per plant) cocoa (3 kg per plant) fodder (2200 kg per hectare) and tapioca (3698 kg per hectare). Fertilizer application for coconut has increased from 0.22 kg to 1.52 kg per palm. The average fertilizer dose of 0.08 kg per cocoa plant 0.25 kg per banana plant, 33 kg per hectare for fodder and 113 kg per hectare for tapioca as adopted by the participants were also inadequate. Only 6 out of 96 holdings covered under the survey have adopted plant protection measures. The intensity of cultural practices has increased many fold with the biggest increase for coconut (562 per cent). All the crops except tapioca have registered substantial increase in total production. Banana, coconut and milk production registered increases of 677 per cent, 62.45 per cent and 15 per cent respectively. Production of tapioca declined by 25.6 per cent. The increase in productivity of coconut was only 38 per cent over the productivity at the pre-project level. In absolute terms the productivity of coconut has increased from 25 nuts to 30 nuts per palm in the unirrigated holdings while the increase in irrigated holdings was from 30 nuts to 44 nuts per palm. The overall increase was from 29 to 40 nuts for the sample as a whole. The increase in yield was highest in the holdings which have completed 5 years (67 per cent) of development followed by holdings completing 4 years (31 per cent) and 3 years (29 per cent). The post project average yield of intercrops such as cocoa (Rs.59 per hectare) banana (6.95 kg per plant) fodder (4525 kg per hectare) and tapioca (5055 kg per hectare) was considerably low. The average gross income per holding increased from Rs.4478 to Rs.9224. In per hectare terms the increase was from Rs.4613 to Rs.9502 (105 per cent). The average net farm income rose from Rs.2860 to Rs.3821 per hectare (34 per cent). The increase in net farm income was maximum in the case of holdings which had completed 5 years of development (69 per cent) followed by holdings completing 4 years (32 per cent) and 3 years (20 per cent). An increase of 47 per cent in the average yield of coconut, 62 per cent in fodder, 0.47 per cent in banana, 134 per cent in cocoa and 17 per cent in milk was notices under the irrigated holdings over the unirrigated holdings. Comparative analysis of the different intercrops indicated that banana is the most profitable intercrop in coconut gardens in Trivandrum district with a potential net return of Rs.6015 per hectare. Mixed farming with dairying as one of the components, though successful in holdings of more than 0.8 hectare size, ranks only second in order of profitability, with a net income of Rs.2990 per hectare. Tapioca with an average return of Rs.621 per hectare ranks third in the order of profitability. Cocoa, the fourth intercrop compared showed negative returns at the yield and price levels prevailed. Economic uplift of the coconut growers by augmenting farm income through whole farm development approach had been the basic objective of the project. On the whole the project has made a good beginning in this direction in spite of several operational constraints.
Open Access
Economics of coconut cultivation in Calicut district
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1987) Premaja, P; KAU; Mukundan, K
A study on the economics of coconut cultivation in Calicut district was conducted during the period 1985-86, to evaluate the costs and returns, capital productivity, resource use efficiency of yielding plantation, the problems of coconut cultivators and the impact of incentives given by different agencies for coconut cultivation. Three stage random sampling was adopted for the study and data were collected from a sample of 120 cultivators by personal interview method. Coconut was cultivated mostly in small holdings and the average area under coconuts in the sample was 0.24 hectare. Most of the holdings were rainfed. Total cost of cultivation for 16 years was estimated to be Rs. 91,311 for the district, in terms of 1985-86 prices. The major item of expenditure was human labour constituting about 50.49 percent of the total cost. Fertilisers including farm yard manure accounted for 24.16 percent and harvesting charges for 9.90 percent of the total cost for 16 years. The total cost of bringing one hectare of coconut plantation up to bearing stage (initial 7 years’ expenditure) was estimated as Rs.38,773 and the maintenance cost per hectare per year was Rs.5,853. The average annual production of nuts per hectares during the stabilized period was estimated as 10049 nuts. Cost of production per nut was calculated as Rs.1.12. The estimated net returns on investment per hectare per year come to Rs.13,835 based on 1983-84 prices. Pay back period was found to be 13.18 years. Benefit cost ratio was calculated as 1.44. Net present worth was Rs.24.454 and internal rate of return was calculated to be 16.39 percent. The factors age, labour, fertilizer and plant protection were found to have significant influence on the gross income obtained from a coconut garden. High input costs, poor irrigation facilities and difficulties associated with marketing were some of the general problems faced by the sample farmers. The study showed that in general, incentives and subsidies given by different agencies have had very little impact on coconut cultivation in the study area.
Open Access
Productivity of capital finance in technological changes in agriculture in Trivandrum district
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1987) Jayan, K; KAU; Prabhakaran, T
This study on capital productivity and role of finance in technological changes in agriculture was carried out using data collected from sample holdings selected from the second and fifth wards of Chettivilakam panchayath and first and fourth wards of Ulloor panchayath under Trivandrum Rural Block in Trivandrum district, Kerala, through multistage random sampling technique. Two samples of size 35 each were selected, the first being that of beneficiaries of agricultural loans and the second being that of non-beneficiaries. The data collected from the two samples were analysed size group wise using production function analysis and Linear programming to estimate the productivity of capital and to generate optimum crop plans under existing and improved technologies. Fertilizer followed by irrigation came out to be the most productive forms of capital. Labour was found to be less productive. Productivity was found to be more in the smaller farms of the beneficiary category. Optimal crop plans developed using Linear programming had shown the potential for increasing the farm income even under the existing technology, by the re-allocation and judicious use of the existing resources. Provision of additional dose of capital showed the possibility of increasing the net farm income in substantial levels even in the existing level of technology. Adoption of improved technology with adequate capital has shown much higher potential for increasing the farm income and this increase was more in the non-beneficiary category. The credit gap for the adoption of the improved technology was also found to be more for the non-beneficiary category and in both the categories the credit gap was found to be the highest for the smallest size group.
Open Access
Socio-economic study of farmers in Irinjalakuda block in the command area of Peechi irrigation project
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1982) Latha Bastine, C; KAU; Rajendran, D V
The study was undertaken with the following objectives, viz., to study the methods and practices followed for cultivation, the general, social and economic characteristics of the farmers in the study area, cost and income structure of the farm business, the resource use; and the savings, investment, assets and debts pattern. One hundred farm families were selected by two stage random sampling, from whom the relevant data were collected using a well structured schedule. The methods and practices followed for cultivation of different crops were found to be more or less the same in different parts of the block. Generally, two crops of paddy (Mundakan and Puncha), coconut, arecanut and banana were the major crops grown. Dependence on hired labour was high in the area. Tractor power was substituted for bullock power to a limited extent. Dependence of family labour was more in smaller size groups. The utilization of fertilizers was below the recommended levels. The per hectare use was found to decrease with increase in the size of the holdings and increase with increase in income. The cost of cultivation for Mundakan season was found to be lower than that of Puncha, mainly due to differences in cultivation operations. Eventhough yield was slightly higher, the cost per quintal was also higher during Puncha than Mundakan. Thus the study showed that Mundakan paddy was more profitable than Puncha due to lower cost of cultivation. Eventhough cost of cultivation was found to decrease with increase in size of holding no clearcut association was found between family income and cost of cultivation. Though the cultivation of coconut and banana resulted in high net returns they involved heavy investment also. Arecanut cultivation in the area was found to be in a declining stage. Expenditure on food did not show much difference among different holding size groups and income groups except in the highest income group and largest holding size group. Expenditure on costly food items like, fish, meat and milk showed a positive relationship with the size of holding and gross income of the families. Only the farmers in the higher income groups were able to meet the household expenditure from the net income obtained from crop production and livestock. The infrastructural facilities in the area were found to be satisfactory. There were sufficient credit, communication and marketing facilities in the area. But in some parts of the block, transport facilities are yet to be developed.
Open Access
Cost of cultivation and marketing of pepper in Cannanore district
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Santhosh, P; KAU; Narayanan Nair, E R
The study was based mainly on the data collected from a sample of farmers and market intermediaries in Cannanore district of Kerala during the year 1982-’83. Data for estimating the cost of cultivation were generated from a random sample of 72 farmers, stratified on the basis of size holding. The costs were analysed input wise, operation wise and also based on ABC cost concepts in the aggregate level and stratum level. Capital productivity analysis was also attempted to study the economic feasibility of pepper cultivation. Pepper marketing was studied from the level of producers to the terminal market at Cochin. Price spread was worked out through the method of concurrent margins. Cost of production analysis was carried out both at the aggregate level and at the stratum levels for a period of seven years viz. from planting till the crop attained the stage of yield stabilisation. The annual cost for the seven year period at the aggregate level was found to be Rs.5,605, during the first year, Rs.2,475.06 in the second year, Rs.3,481.80 in the third year, Rs.3,514.48 in the fourth year, Rs.3,992.72 in the fifth year, Rs.4,715.12 in the sixth year and Rs.5,681.68 in the seventh year. In general the most conspicuous cost creating input was human labour while the corresponding operation was intercultural operations. Roughly one-fourth of the total cost was fixed cost and the rental value of the land was the predominant item in this. The cost of cultivation was highest in stratum II and less in stratum I. Analysis of capital productivity revealed that the investment on pepper cultivation had a pay back period of nine years two months and eleven days, benefit-cost ratio of 1.16, Net present worth of Rs. 6,646 and an internal rate of return of 17.22 per cent. The market practices, marketing costs, market structure and price spread were also studied. The marketing channels identified were: 1. Producer → Pre-harvest contractor → Wholesaler →Exporter 2. Producer → Village Merchant → Wholesaler → Exporter 3. Producer → Wholesaler → Exporter 4. Producer → Village Merchant → Commission agent → Wholesaler → Exporter 5. Producer → Commission agent → Wholesaler → Exporter 6. Producer → Village Merchant → Internal wholesaler (Consignment trade) The price spread in these six channels were worked out to be 28 per cent, 17.45 per cent, 12.65 per cent, 18.91 per cent, 14.11 per cent and 14.01 per cent respectively.
Open Access
Economics of rubber cultivation by small holders in Kottayam district
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1981) Elsamma, Job; KAU; Mukundan, K
An investigation on economics of rubber cultivation by small holders was conducted in Kottayam district during the period 1980-81, to evaluate the cost and returns, capital productivity, the resource efficiency of yielding plantations and to study the problems of small growers. Stratified two stage sampling was adopted for the study and data were collected from a sample of 100 cultivators selected randomly. Average size of family for the sample was found to be 5.89. Majority of the sample holdings were under the size group of 0.50 to 1.00 hectares. Total cost of cultivation per hectare for establishing rubber i.e., for seven years was estimated at Rs.11054 in terms of 1980-81 prices. More than one half of this was accounted for by labour. Net returns per hectare was Rs.3234 during the eighth year and Rs.7193 during the 12th year – the year of yield stabilization. Cost of production per quintal of sheet rubber was estimated at Rs.305 during stabilized yield period. Payback period was 9.51 years. Benefit-cost ratio was 2.04 and internal rate of return 24.20 per cent. No serious problems were seen to be faced by the small growers.
Open Access
Optimization of enterprise combinations with special reference to garden land agriculture
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1985) Jayachandran, N V; KAU; Prabhakaran, T
This study on optimal enterprise combinations on garden land farms in Kerala was carried out using data collected from sample holdings selected from the ninth ward of Panancherry panchayath under Ollukkara block in Trichur district, through simple random sampling. The 72 holdings that formed the sample were grouped into four categories based on size of garden land holdings. The major constraints identified were land, labour in three seasons viz. June to September, October to December and January to May, irrigation and capital. Banana was identified as the most resource intensive activity followed by arecanut plus pepper. Cocoa was the least labour and capital intensive activity. Net margins calculated per unit of activity indicated that banana had highest net margin in all categories followed by arecanut plus pepper, coconut, cow, tapioca and cocoa in the decreasing order. Optimal plans worked out under existing conditions using linear programming technique for model farms under the four categories of holdings indicated a uniform tendency of increase in area under coconut over the existing plan. Except the optimal plan for the second category, which included arecanut plus pepper also, all other optimal plans had three enterprises viz. coconut, banana and cow. Cocoa and tapioca did not appear in any optimal plan. Maximum increase in net income of 52 per cent was recorded in optimal plan for first category. In other categories the increases were ten per cent in both second and third and nine per cent in the fourth category. Optimal plans resulted in more efficient use of resources. Sensitivity of optimal plans were tested by considering 25 per cent increases in prices of pepper and tapioca. The optimal plans at revised prices indicated decline in area under coconut over optimal plans at original prices in all categories simultaneously followed by appearance of tapioca in the first category and arecanut plus pepper in second, third and fourth categories. Banana was eliminated from second category and cow activity from the third category. Increase in net incomes on revised optimal plans over existing plans worked out to 54 per cent, 20 per cent, 13 per cent and 10 per cent respectively on categories I, II, III and IV.
Open Access
Production and marketing of groundnut in Palghat District
(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1984) Ayyasamy, M; KAU; Mukundan, K
A study on economics of production and marketing was taken up in Palghat District with reference to the first season (April – August) of the year 1982-83 to estimate costs and returns, resource use efficiency of groundnut cultivation, marketing cost and price spread in groundnut marketing and to identify the problems of the groundnut cultivators. Eighty cultivators were selected by multistage random sampling method. Data were collected from samples of groundnut cultivators, traders and oil millers by personal interview method. It was found that the average family size was 5.71. Only 76.25 per cent of the respondents were literate. The average size of land holding was 3.40 hectares. The cropping intensity was 178.90. The average capital investment including the value of land was Rs.55740 per holding and Rs. 17160 per hectare. The capital investment excluding land value was Rs.8790 per holding and Rs. 2700 per hectare. Costs of cultivation per hectare of groundnut based on cost A, cost B and cost C were Rs. 2340.93, Rs.3203.13 and Rs.3240 respectively. The average costs of production per quintal of groundnut pods based on cost A, cost B and cost C were Rs. 181.73, Rs.261.05 and Rs.264.40 respectively. The major item of cost was human labour which accounted 31.02 per cent (Rs. 1004.88) of the total cost followed by seeds 22.49 per cent (Rs.728.80),bullock labour and machinery 7.12 per cent (Rs.249.13), fertilizers and manures 7.12 per cent (Rs.230.82) and plant protection chemicals 0.91 per cent (Rs.29.63).The average seed rate was 133.10 kg per hectare. The average amount of fertilizers used per hectare was 6.45 kg of nitrogen, 7.89 kg of phosphorous and 12.35 kg of potash. The average human labour utilized per hectare was 100.49 mandays. The average bullock labour used per hectare was 10.50 bullock pair days. Seed sowing was the most important operation which accounted for 25.65 per cent (Rs.831.83) of the total cost of cultivation followed by harvesting 15.78 per cent (Rs.511.32), manuring 9.87 per cent (Rs.320.51), after cultivation 9.70 per cent (Rs.314.51), preparatory cultivation 7.78 per cent (Rs.229.48) and plant protection 1.10 per cent (Rs.35.73). The average yield per hectare was 1087 kg of groundnut pods. Gross income, farm business income, family income, net income and farm investment income per hectare were Rs.3739.43, Rs.1398.50, Rs.536.30, Rs.499.43 and Rs.1361.63 respectively. The benefit cost ratios based on cost A, cost B and cost C were 1.60, 1.17 and 1.15 respectively. Cobb-Douglas production functions were fitted to test the resource use efficiency. Marginal productivity analysis revealed that land and human labour had positive and significant influence on gross income. Three channels were identified in groundnut marketing and most commonly used channel was producer- village merchant- oil miller. The producer’s share in the miller’s price was 87.83 per cent in Chittur Block and 89.55 per cent in Kollengode Block. The marketing margin for the village merchant was 5.23 per cent in Chittur Block and 3.45 per cent in Kollengode Block. The marketing cost incurred by the village merchant was 6.94 per cent in Chittur Block and 7.10 per cent in Kollengode Block. Four channels were identified in the groundnut oil marketing and most commonly used channel was oil miller – wholesaler – retailer – consumer. The marketing margins were 4.66 per cent to the miller, 1.55 per cent to the wholesaler and 0.85 per cent to the retailer. The marketing costs were 5.58 per cent to the oil miller, 0.45 per cent to the wholesaler and 0.21 per cent to the retailer. Farmers faced many problems such as incidences of pests and diseases, low price, lack of drying facilities and absence of proper marketing system.

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