Browsing by Author "Jayasree Krishnankutty, M"
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ThesisItem Open Access Environmental pollution experienced by agricultural systems: a stakeholder perspective(Department of Agriculture Extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Lakshmi, Muralikrishna; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty, M“The place makes the poison” is a popular dictum by Paracelsus. But pollution is no longer a matter confined to a locality, but is now a matter of global health concern. It is a ubiquitous catastrophe that shows its range from household wastes to the complex compounds released from industries. Health risks due to environmental pollution are more likely to occur in developing countries. Increased prevalence of autism, cancer, blue baby syndrome and other medically inexplicable diseases are the consequences of pollution. Thus, it is of utmost importance to focus on the perspective of farmers regarding environment, as they are often the most vulnerable to the dire consequences of pollution. The present research was conducted in Kerala Agricultural University. 90 farmers and 30 stakeholders comprising of Agricultural Officers, local governance members, development personnel, NGO’s and General public were randomly selected from the six Panchaths Puzhakkal, Alathur, Puthur, Pananchery, Nadathara and Madakkathara. Independent and dependent variables were selected after discussing with experts, major advisor and previous literature. Data was collected by using interview schedule. The data was then scored, tabulated and presented using statistical instruments like frequency, percentage, composite index, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, nonparametric tests, factor analysis, regression and correlation. A majority (38.88 per cent) farmer were younger than 40 years of age and high percentage (47.77 per cent) of the farmers were graduates and above showing the high literacy among farmers. Majority (43.33 per cent) of the selected farmers had a farming experience of 10-20 years and forty per cent of the farmers were small farmers with land holdings of 2.5-5 ha. Canal was the major water source used by the farmers to carry out irrigation (38.8 per cent) and majority (42.22 per cent) of the farmers had their farms at a distance of 1-3 km from an industrial area. A majority (45.5 per cent) farmer had high mass media exposure. The three major types of pollution seen in the farming systems were water pollution, air pollution and soil pollution. All the selected six Panchayaths showed moderate levels of water pollution, air pollution and soil pollution based on the scores of the statements. There were high differences in the ill effects of environmental pollution due to agri-intensive cultivation, integrated farming system and threat to human health due to certain farming system practices as experienced by the six Panchayaths as perceived by all the stakeholders from the six Panchayaths using Kruskal Wallis Test. This shows the heterogeneity of perception of the stakeholders about ill effects of environmental pollution which may be a consequence of the different levels of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the farming systems towards the hazards. From the study, it was revealed that 60 per cent of the farmers had medium levels of awareness about the causes of environmental pollution, while a high majority (82.22 per cent) had high awareness about the effects of pollution. Vulnerability of a farming system to pollution depended on the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the farming system to potential environmental pollution hazards. It was revealed from the study that Puzhakkal was the most vulnerable Panchayath to pollution with a vulnerability index of 75.35, followed by Nadathara with 74.41, Puthur with 64.95, Pananchery with 63.08 amd Madakkathara with 52.55. The least vulnerable Panchayath was Alathur at 48.88. Vulnerability increased with an increase in exposure and sensitivity, while adaptive capacity negatively influenced vulnerability. The results of Principal Component Analysis revealed that the vulnerability of all the six Panchayaths to environmental pollution could be best explained by 4 components.The highest total variance explained by the four components was in Pananchery at 80.20 per cent, followed by Madakkathara at 73.74 per cent, Nadathara at 72.69 per cent, Puzhakkal at 72.04 per cent, and Puthur at 70.90 per cent and Alathur at 67.33 per cent. Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient was used to assess the relation of independent variables with vulnerability to pollution. It was found that age and proximity of the farm to an industrial area were the factors that showed significant correlation with vulnerability. Age was positively correlated while proximity of the farm to an industrial area was negatively correlated. Multinomial logistic regression was used to find the probability of a farming system to attain low vulnerability and moderate vulnerability from high vulnerability. Area of land holding and age of the farmer are found to be significant variables for attaining low vulnerability. The probability of attaining low vulnerability by increasing the area of land holding and age of the farmer by one unit was 85.81 and 24.5 per cent respectively.None of the variables showed significance for a farming system to attain moderate vulnerability. The inadequacy of waste disposal and waste recycling facilities was observed by this study to be the most important constraint all the Panchayaths. Lack of mass media contact and high cost of carrying out organic farming was reported to be the least important constraint by the majority of farmers. The farmers also reported high resurgence of pests and diseases in their farms. According to the study, the suggestion that the farmers must utilize more of mass media to know about environmental pollution and its detrimental effects was considered as the most important by a majority of the farmers. Improving the sanitization of the farms and living areas of the farmers was also considered an important suggestion to the farmers. The least relevant suggestion according to the farmers was the technological control of automobile pollution, as opined by the majority farmers. A discussion conducted with the stakeholders from all the six Panchayaths comprising of Agricultural Officers, development personnels, local governance members, NGO’s and the general public regarding Government schemes and legislative policies revealed that all the stakeholders were aware of the soil health cards and the implementation of biogas plants. Majority of the stakeholders were unaware of the environmental legislative support and policies implemented for the year 2019-2020.ThesisItem Open Access Exploratory study for resilient wheat farming in Nigeria(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022) Salisu, Ahmad Dambazau; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty, MWheat growing has been the most difficult aspect of Nigerian agriculture for decades. Certain issues remain unresolved, posing a threat to the country's goal of diversifying revenue and lowering its growing reliance on imported wheat. Low wheat production, insecurity in Nigeria's wheat region, a lack of mechanized and updated farming techniques, and uncompetitive pricing are among the issues. This study for resilient wheat farming in Nigeria was conducted with the specific objectives of exploring the sociopolitical situation affecting wheat farming, studying the perceived effects of climate change on production of wheat and livelihoods of wheat farmers, analysing the government policies and schemes on wheat production, examining the marketing behaviour of wheat farmers, and arriving at policy options for resilient wheat farming in Nigeria. In view of the key research objectives, an ex-post facto research design was employed. A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted where three states (Jigawa, Kano and Yobe) and six local government areas (Ajingi, Bade, Garun Malan, Kafin Hausa, Nguru and Ringim), two from each state, were selected for the study. Furthermore, forty respondents were randomly selected from each local government area, making the total sample size of 240. Personal interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect primary data. A pre-test was also conducted to ensure the validity of the instruments. Secondary data was gathered from policy documents, relevant literature, government reports, newspapers, and so on. The elicited data was tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted by the use of descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, likert scale of summated rating, content analysis techniques (MAXQDA 2022 statistical software), price spread analysis, compound growth rate analysis, Kruskal-Wallis test, discriminant function analysis, and the Kendell coefficient of concordance test. The study revealed that the farmers were within their active age, married, and living below the poverty line, have low levels of education, mostly explored additional sources of income, and have enough years of experience in wheat farming. The farmers have marginal land size and acquired it through one method, using mostly certified and non-certified seeds and sourcing it mostly from two places while in contact with an extension agent most of the time. The respondents also participated in other activities for livelihood earning and have a larger number of household members, mostly with one earning member. The study revealed that the most common biotic, abiotic, social and political stress affecting wheat crops and farmers differ with regard to location. The major stresses affecting wheat farmers in Nigeria were pests and diseases, wild birds, marketing of their produce, rodents and domestic animal attacks. The social and political situations affecting wheat production were identified as internal social factors, external social factors, and political factors. Lack of good cultivation practices and the knowledge level of the farmers were the major internal social factors. These, among others, prevented the farmer from fully adopting the recommended agronomic practices. While the major external social factors were consumer food habits, consumer demand for convenience, lower produce prices, and high input costs, The political factors identified were social security issues, inconsistent government policies, intricacies in implementation, the role of the media in publication, role-playing by the milling industries, international trade interests, and lack of political will. No doubt, wheat millers imported more than required in 1986. It may have been a means for them to sabotage AWPP's success. The present approach employed by the milling industry, if sustained, will surely boost the wheat crop production in the country. Further findings indicated that the overall growth rate during the study period was -1% for production and only a minimal growth rate of 2% for harvested area, while a 5% positive growth rate was recorded in imports. It was a clear indication of the low yield of the wheat crop in Nigeria. The findings affirmed that the respondents were aware of climate change, with the majority of them having a medium perception of its effects on wheat production in Nigeria. There was a significant difference among the respondents with regard to the climate change perception which was influenced by their age, educational level, secondary occupation, years of experience, contact with extension agents, and household size. Additionally, Nigeria’s climate has no or little effect on wheat crop production. However, it may be that wheat production in Nigeria has been affected largely by human action rather than climatic and environmental factors. The findings inferred that the wheat production policies were domiciled in Kano state and that there was no equal distribution and allocation of resources among the states. The Anchor Borrower Program (ABP) is the only program having participants across the study areas. This may be because there is advancement in policy handling among the implementing agencies. The ABP failed to capture sustainability in production as well as rural infrastructural development in the program statement. The Agricultural Promotion Policy (APP) document left no stone unturned, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development is driving the implementation of the policy. The policy document gives priority to stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities and is more concerned about sustainability in the production of the priority crops as well as reliability in the marketing channels. The document considers modern day agricultural approaches through the involvement of private sectors in all areas of the agricultural commodity value chain. For the improvement of rural livelihoods, the policy considered the development of the farming communities’ infrastructure. However, the respondents have a medium perception of government policy and scheme on wheat production in Nigeria which influenced by their age, educational level, secondary occupation, years of experience, contact with extension agent, farm size, household size and monthly income, and there was no significant difference in their perception. The majority of the respondents sell their produce immediately after harvest if the price is favourable due to financial urgency for both wholesalers and retailers in the case of Jigawa and Yobe, and consumers in the case of Kano. The majority sell in the local market due to proximity and using trucks as their main transportation facility. The study also inferred that the majority of the respondents relied on informal sources of market information and utilized them regularly. This revealed the kind of trust the respondents gave to those sources and affirmed the weakness of the extension system in the study areas, especially in Yobe state. There were four marketing channels in Jigawa and Kano, while three were identified in Yobe. The producers received the highest percent of the marketing share in channel I (producer –consumer) and a higher amount in channel II (producer–retailer–consumer). The marketing margin was higher in channel III (producer–wholesaler–retailer–consumer) and the producers received a lower amount when compared with channels I and II. This indicates that the more the actors, the less the producers share. There was no additional information obtained from channel IV as it involved industrial processes. Moreover, the study shows that there was significant variation between the states with regard to the variables under study among the respondents between the states. The variable marketing behaviour had the most prominent effect in predicting membership in the group between Kano and other states, while farm size was the most prominent effect between Jigawa and Yobe. The variability in net income of a wheat farmer in Nigeria could be predicted with 99.3% accuracy using age, total output, selling price, straw price, quantity of pesticide used, frequency of irrigation, and total cost of production. The study confirmed that the major constraints affecting wheat farmers in Nigeria were a lack of government intervention, a weak extension system, high input and pest and disease costs, a low output price, insufficient credit facilities, a lack of high-yielding varieties, poor yield, and a lack of a regular market. There was strong agreement on the most important constraints among the respondents of different states. For Nigeria to achieve the desired outcome, focused commitments and the adoption of a multi-dimensional approach are required. Political factors were the major concerns surrounding the wheat production sector and would be overcome through a yearly stakeholders' round table meeting to review the situation. External social factor issues would be addressed by raising awareness and establishing a commodity board to ensure remunerative prices for farmers and reasonable prices for consumers, as well as a consistent supply of raw materials to milling industries. Extension should be intensified to enhance the knowledge level of the farmer for better understanding and increased adoption of new varieties. This could help to overcome internal social issues. More young people need to be persuaded to work in wheat farming in order to increase production and sustainability. Resilient wheat farming in Nigeria could be achieved through focused commitments across the stakeholders’ line. Legislation should be enacted to deal with saboteurs, and the adoption of a multi-dimensional approach toward solving any unforeseen circumstances, should be resorted to.ThesisItem Open Access Exploratory study on organic farming among smallholder farmers(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Visakha, T; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty, MOrganic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. The study was formulated with objectives to identify the components of organic farming in the selected organic homesteads, identify the marketing channels utilized by farmers and work out their marketing efficiency, analyze the biodiversity in the selected organic homesteads, explore the constraints experienced by farmer and formulate suggestions for promoting organic farming in the state. The study was conducted in Malappuram district of Kerala state. comprising of Nilambur and Wandoor blocks with a sample size of 30 organic homesteads picked out using random sampling techniques. Data were collected by using structured interview schedules and direct observation. The results revealed that components of organic farming in the selected homesteads were use of bulky organic manure, concentrated organic manure, green leaf manure, green manure crops, bio fertilizer, liquid organic manure, traps, bio control agents and organic pesticides. The study assessed the diversity of plants in organic homesteads. Nilambur block recorded the higher diversity (0.84) followed by Wandoor block (0.73). Nilambur block recorded the higher species richness (1.96) followed by Wandoor block (1.80). The major crops marketed in the study area vegetables and banana. Vegetables studied were chilli, bitter gourd, cowpea and Amaranthus. In the case of cowpea highest marketing efficiency was recorded in channel I (Producer –consumer) and lowest in channel II (Producer-retailer-consumer) ,whereas bitter gourd highest marketing efficiency was recorded in channel I (Producer – consumer) and lowest in channel II (Producer-retailer- consumer), in the case of chilli highest marketing efficiency was recorded in channel I (Producer – consumer) and lowest in channel III (Producer- Govt agency (horticorp) – consumer), In amaranthus highest marketing efficiency of was recorded in channel I (Producer – consumer) and lowest in channel II (Producer-retailer-consumer ) . In thecase of banana highest marketing efficiency was in recorded in channel I (Producer – consumer) and lowest in channel II ( Producer-retailer-consumer) . Source of income, annual income had showed higher positive correlation with biodiversity index of organic homesteads. A comparative study between the farmers from two blocks revealed that education and annual income were significantly different of these two blocks of farmers. The major constraints faced by farmers were lack of premium price for organic produce, less market price, lack of crop insurance, wild animal attack, low yield, high wages, and labour shortage and pest and disease problems. Suggestions brought forth by the study for promoting organic farming are designing implementing awareness programs for the consumers, development of model organic farms with institutional support, providing financial incentives for promoting organic farming, ensuring availability of quality organic manure at reasonable price, enhancing the supportive role in government marketing of organic produce and encouraging setting up of organic kitchen garden in homesteads, organic certification More studies on organic farming especially on the marketing aspects are needed to develop viable solutions for the challenges faced by the promoting system.ThesisItem Open Access Scenario analysis of Mushroom microenterprises(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Swathy Suresh, K S; KAU; Jayasree Krishnankutty, MMushrooms have aroused man's interest since the dawn of civilization. They are considered as one of the most important high quality protein rich vegetable crops. Mushroom entrepreneurship if promoted, will offer plenty of advantages and have the capacity to assist rural society in establishing more long term economic growth. Kerala has an immense potential for mushroom production due its low cost, easy availability of raw materials, and round-the-year production capability. Even though a field with great scope for exploration, the studies with extension aspects are very limited and in this backdrop the present study was conducted to know about the current scenario of mushroom cultivation. The current study entitled “Scenario analysis of mushroom microenterprises” was conducted in Kerala Agricultural University. Data collection was carried out among 120 mushroom entrepreneurs. Sixty mushroom entrepreneurs each from Thrissur and Palakkad districts, mainly engaged in production (spawn / mushroom) and marketing; production, processing and marketing were randomly selected. The independent and dependent variables were selected for the study on the basis of judges rating. An interview schedule was prepared to collect data from mushroom entrepreneurs. Then the collected data were arranged, scored and analyzed using suitable statistical tools. The results revealed that among the 120 mushroom units, majority (56.66%) units were production and marketing type and 43.33 per cent of mushroom units were production, processing and marketing type. The analysis of mushroom unit structure showed that, majority (40.83%) of mushroom entrepreneurs had production unit size above 500 sq.feet; 54.16 per cent had kutcha type of mushroom shed; family or group labour was the source of labour for 75.83 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs and majority of them had equipments in the range of 2 to 4 in numbers. A large proportion (43.33%) of mushroom entrepreneurs belongs to the age category 31-40 years and around 40.83 per cent of them were graduates. Agriculture along with mushroom cultivation was the family occupation of majority (37.5%) of the mushroom entrepreneurs. Nearly 41.66 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs were received income per season in the range of Rs/- 25,000 – 50,000 and around 51.66 per cent had obtained yield per season above 150 Kg. Majority (28.33%) per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had an experience of two and half to three years and about 30.83 per cent choose direct selling to consumers and local markets as their major marketing avenue. For transporting the mushroom products 68.33 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs were used their own vehicle. Majority of the mushroom entrepreneurs had medium level of economic motivation (80%), risk orientation (54.16%) and extension contact (71.66%). In case of mobility, the frequency of visit for most of the mushroom entrepreneurs were to nearby panchayath and town for various purposes. Institutional supports like training and SHM subsidy were availed by majority (48.33%) of the mushroom entrepreneurs. The various institutions providing support includes Kerala Agricultural University, Extension Centres, Research Organizations, State Horticulture Mission and Kudumbasree District Mission. The analyses of producer characteristics were carried out using two way contingency table and chi-square test, and inferred that there exist a positive significant relationship between the type of mushroom shed and yield; marketing avenue and income; marketing avenue and family occupation. Other salient findings from the study revealed that majority (61.66%) of mushroom entrepreneurs were females and nearly 85.83 per cent were sole entrepreneurs. Around 81.66 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had their own source of investment for mushroom cultivation. Oyster mushroom was the major type cultivated by 68.33 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs, 35 per cent of them were collecting mushroom spawns from various government sources and nearly 79.16 per cent didn’t face any problem regarding the quality of yield and spawn. Around 84 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had trade mark for their mushroom products. Polythene cover was the packing material used by 75.83 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs. The performance of mushroom units includes four dimensions ie., Social Capital Indicators (SCI), Good Mushroom Cultivation Practices (GMCP), Efficiency Indicators (EI) and Incremental Expansion (IE). The overall performance score shows that, majority (62.5%) of mushroom units performs under medium category. Using discriminant analysis and binary logistic regression, a comparison was done with dimensions of performance index and type of units. The result stated that the dimension Social Capital Indicators (SCI) is the significantly discriminating one for type of units. The relationship of independent variables with the performance of mushroom units had been analyzed using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient method. The independent variables like size of production unit, income per season, yield per season, experience, type of mushroom shed, marketing avenue, risk orientation, extension contact, mode of transport for sale of goods and institutional support shows a positive significant relationship and the variables such as source of labour and family occupation shows a negative significant relationship with the performance of mushroom units. The major constraints faced by mushroom entrepreneurs were marketing difficulty, price instability and lack of market information. Finally, strategic options such as promotion of direct marketing method, extension interventions, creating public awareness, providing trainings, etc. were suggested for the improvement of mushroom enterprises. A futuristic scenario analysis was also conducted to predict the futuristic possibilities of mushroom enterprises in Kerala.