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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Groundwater irrigation: management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Seenath Peedikakandi; KAU; Indira Devi, PGroundwater is the major source of domestic use and irrigation in Kerala, accounting for 39 per cent of net irrigated area. Irrigated agriculture in the state shows continuous increase over years. At the same time Kerala is reported as third among the states with highest depletion of groundwater. This situation poses challenges in agricultural production. The study ‘Groundwater irrigation: Management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions’ was undertaken, in this background. The objectives of the study were to analyse the extent of decline in groundwater resources and farmers’ understanding of the same, to analyse the extraction practices, management and economic efficiency of groundwater irrigation and coping (short term) and adaptation (long term) strategies towards management of groundwater decline and the economic cost of adaptation strategies. The study was conducted in Palakkad district of Kerala. Based on the stage of ground water development, three Block Panchayats viz., Chittur (over exploited), Malampuzha (critical) and Pattambi (semi-critical) were selected for the study. 50 Open Well (OW) irrigated and 50 Bore Well (BW) irrigated farms from each BP were randomly selected from the Grama Panchayats (GPs) where observational wells of the GWD (Ground Water Department- Kerala) are situated. Primary data was collected from the sample farms through field visits using pre-tested structured interview schedule and through direct observation. PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) was also conducted in each BP to draw the time line of changes in ground water status and social perceptions. Secondary data on monthly water levels of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (GMWs) maintained by GWD (Palakkad),rainfall data and published reports were used for the study. Statistical tools like descriptive analysis, regression and Stochastic Frontier Function were employed for analysis of the data. In most of the GMWs in the study area, the Water Level from Ground (WLG) has been declining over the years. The trend was more predominant during early summer (Dec.–Jan.) in Chittur and Malampuzha and in late summer in Pattambi BP. Regression analysis showed that WLG was significantly influenced by one year lagged rainfall in Chittur and current year rainfall in Malampuzha and Pattambi. The average well density was 205/km2 with highest in Pattambi. Density of defunct wells was highest (45/km2) and the average functional age of bore wells was lowest (7 years) in Chittur. The depth of well was highest in Chittur where bore well depth (136 mbgl- meters below ground level) was double than that of Pattambi. Coconut based cropping system was prevalent in most of the farms except in Malampuzha where paddy was the major crop. Flood, basin and sprinkler irrigations were found to be more common in Malampuzha and Pattambi BPs, while drip irrigation was prevalent in Chittur. Cost of irrigation in Chittur was about Rs. 29,000/ha/year which accounted for 37 per cent of cost of cultivation. Annual net return per ha. of farm was lowest (Rs. 17,640/-) in Chittur due to low cropping intensity. Stochastic Frontier Analysis indicated that mean economic efficiency was high (99.9%) in Chittur as most of the farms were functioning along the cost frontier. The variability among the farms in Chittur was low. Respondents opined that groundwater is declining over the years irrespective of the region. It has been so, for more than a decade in Chittur affecting socio-economic well-being of farmers. They attributed intensive extraction through bore wells and low rainfall as the major reasons for the decline. Farm level adaptations to water scarcity are classified under ‘supply management’ (methods that facilitated increase in quantity of water available for irrigation) and ‘demand management’ (methods that tried to use the water effectively through minimizing the use) strategies. The supply management strategies were mainly exploitative in nature which included digging new bore well (52-58%), improved draft technology with compressor pumps (58%), taking pits for water conservation (7%), coconut husk burial (12%), coconut leaf mulching (18%) and dependence on water markets (8%). Digging new bore well was the most common supply management strategy in Chittur which is highly capital intensive. The average cost amounted to Rs. 8,520/ha/year. Intensive extraction was done by excessive use of subsidized electricity. Adoption of drip irrigation (60%) was the most widely practiced demand management strategy which cost about Rs. 22,000/ha/year. Cropping pattern change from paddy and sugarcane to coconut was also observed. About 18 per cent of the land area in Chittur was kept fallow due to water scarcity. The study brings out results that suggest policy interventions in regulating bore well digging and revisiting the power subsidy system. In Chittur area, where the rainfall is scanty, extension of the Right Bank Canal of the Chittur River irrigation project is the most feasible solution. Taking up on-farm research trials in the area to suggest efficient farming systems and practices may also be done. Simultaneously water resource conservation strategies are to be popularized through awareness creation, capacity building programmes and subsidy support.ThesisItem Open Access Supply chain analysis of marine fish marketing system in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Jeyanthi, P; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KFisheries is a major allied sector of agriculture contributing about 0.8 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5.15 per cent to agricultural GDP in India. Marine fisheries supports around 10 million people providing livelihood and employment directly or indirectly. Fish also provides more than one billion people living below the poverty line with most of their daily animal protein requirement globally. Kerala is a state known for its fish consumption which is more than four times the national average. However, the marine domestic fish marketing system faces several challenges in the process of distributing fish from the producer to the consumer. The study was conducted in Kerala state, which is the fourth largest fish producer in the country, and covered coastal and land locked (non-coastal) regions. The objectives of the study were to identify the supply chain of selected fish species, to assess the structure and performance of domestic fish markets, to examine the market integration and price transmission among the markets and to assess the consumer perception and suggest policy guidelines for improved fish marketing in Kerala. Two coastal districts viz., Ernakulam (E) and Kollam (K) and two land locked districts, Idukki (I) and Pathanamthitta (P) were selected and data was collected using simple random sampling from various marketing functionaries (producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers). Since the species composition of marine fish landings is varied, the study focused on four high value (seer fish, shrimp, pomfret and tuna) and four low value but commonly consumed fish species (sardine, mackerel, anchovies, threadfin bream). Supply chain of the selected fish species was identified using the framework of Feller et al, 2006. Market performance of producers, wholesalers and retailers were assessed using Data Envelopment Analysis. The co-integration test was used to analyses the market integration of selected market pairs. Conjoint analysis was used to determine the attributes responsible for their fish purchasing behaviour. The constraints faced by the market functionaries were ranked using Rank Based Quotient. The generic supply chain of fish identified involved the auctioneer, wholesaler, retailers, secondary retailers, between the producer and the consumer. This is almost similar to the supply chain of other perishable like fruits, vegetables and flowers. The supply chain for sardine, tuna and thread fin bream also involved extra nodes in their supply chain due to industry specific demands like feed and other specialized products. The market structure of domestic fish markets was not efficient. The main reason being lack of infrastructure such as cold storage, well planned display and assemblage platforms, potable water and weighing balance. Market performance of producers was measured at the five landing centres in Ernakulam and Kollam and it was observed that only one market was efficient in each of the districts. It was revealed that the nature of inefficiency was due to scale rather than technology. In both Ernakulam and Kollam, only one wholesale market each was efficient and all other markets showed high technical efficiency i.e., above 0.80. In both wholesale and retail markets, the technical efficiency was relatively low in Idukki and Pathanamthitta with it being least in Idukki. It was revealed that the markets in the coastal regions showed relatively high technical efficiency than the land locked regions because of the higher volumes handled in the markets due to proximity with the landing centres, viz, the primary production centres, which is not so easily accessible to the land locked districts. Among wholesale markets, one market pair in Ernakulam, one in Idukki and one in Pathanamthitta showed co-integration and among retail one each in Ernkulam and Pathanamthitta showed co-integration. This indicates that in these markets there is a possibility of long run equilibrium in prices. The existence of low short run market integration (SRMI) at both wholesale as well as retail market levels was observed among the co-integrated market pairs. Consumer preference was for fresh fish in all the four districts studied in cleaned and cut form from retailers, wholesalers or wholesaler-cum-retailer. Sardine was the most preferred species in both coastal and landlocked regions of Kerala with more than 75 and 72 per cent of respondents, respectively, consuming it daily. The relative importance of attributes that consumer in Ernakulam and Kollam looked at while purchasing fish was fish species in fresh form and income. In Idukki and Pathanamthitta, availability and income were the relatively important attributes. Based on the pooled response of market functionaries in the selected districts the domination of middlemen was the major constraint for producers, wholesalers and retailers. Safety and quality of fish was the major constraint of consumers. The studies on efficiency of fish supply chain in line with the changing consumer preference are the future line of work towards sustainable fisheries development.ThesisItem Open Access Strain improvement of oyster mushrooms- pleurotus cystidiosus O.K. Mill and pleurotus opuntiae (Durieu and LEV.) SACC.(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2018) Krishnapriya, P J; KAU; Geetha, DThe present study entitled “Strain improvement of oyster mushrooms: Pleurotus cystidiosus O.K.Mill and Pleurotus opuntiae (Durieu and Lev.) Sacc.” was carried out in College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2015-2018, with the objective to standardize the techniques for production of oyster mushrooms: P. cystidiosus and P. opuntiae; and to study their morphological, physiological and cultural characteristics as well as nutritional and organoleptic qualities; and to undertake genetic improvement by protoplast fusion. The mushrooms were collected from two locations of Thiruvananthapuram and three fast growing isolates of Pleurotus spp. viz., PC2 (Vellayani), PNC1 (Chirayinkeezhu) and PO1 (Vellayani) were selected for the study. These isolates were identified as P. cystidiosus subsp. abalonus, P. cystidiosus and P. opuntiae using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) primers and subsequent sequencing; and registered at Genbank database with accession numbers KY214254, KY887023 and KY214255 respectively. The fast growing isolates of P. cystidiosus (coremial), P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and P. opuntiae recorded maximum growth on PDPA amended with one per cent yeast under dark condition. The optimum temperatures for the growth were 30 0C, 25 to 30 0C and 25 0C respectively whereas, the optimum pH were 8, 8 and 7 to 8 respectively. Studies with different substrates and amendments for spawn production revealed that sorghum with one per cent yeast was the best for P. cystidiosus (coremial) and P. opuntiae whereas, paddy grains with one per cent yeast for P. cystidiosus (non-coremial). Experiments with different substrates and amendments for mushroom production revealed that rubber wood sawdust sprayed with 2.5 per cent of 1 M potassium dihydrogen phosphate recorded the maximum BE for P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) (192.76 per cent). P. opuntiae recorded the maximum BE in rubber wood sawdust amended either with 4 per cent neem cake (91.38 per cent) or wheat bran (91.37 per cent). Major insect pests observed in the beds of Pleurotus spp. were phorid flies, spring tails, black ants and staphylinid beetles. The competitor moulds observed were different species of Coprinus, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Trichoderma. Sporocarps soaked in one per cent CA for 15 minutes followed by mechanical drying and powdering was the best post harvest treatment for both P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and P. opuntiae. Mycelium of P. cystidiosus (coremial) showed black coremial structures, representing its asexual stage (Antromycopsis broussonetiae Pat. & Trab.). The coremia comprised of elliptical (16.31 µm x 7.48 µm) and round conidia (8.06 to 8.49 µm). The black colour of coremia was due to melanin which was extracted (255.56 mg l-1) and characterized. The performance of long duration P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and short duration P. opuntiae was compared with two ruling mushrooms of Kerala viz., long duration P. florida (Mont.) Singer and short duration P. eous (Berk.) Sacc. The study revealed that P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and P. opuntiae showed higher BE compared to P. florida and P. eous, respectively. P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) recorded maximum moisture (94.05 per cent), starch (200.55 mg g-1), protein (30.2 mg g-1), fat (4.25 per cent), antioxidants (485.45 μg equivalent gram of ascorbic acid-1), beta-carotene (25.69 µg 100 mg-1), polyphenols (7.55 mg g-1) and energy (359.45 Kcal) compared to other Pleurotus spp. Sensory evaluation of mushroom products made from the species of Pleurotus was done and masala curry prepared from P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) scored the maximum value for overall acceptability. Shelf life of P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) was higher (5 days) compared to P. opuntiae, P. florida and P. eous (3 days each) in perforated poly propylene covers stored under refrigeration. Vanillin (0.05 per cent) and carbendazim (1 mM) were selected as dual biochemical markers for the PEG mediated protoplast fusion. Three days old P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and four days old P. opuntiae recorded the maximum protoplast yield at five and four hours after incubation respectively with 0.6 M KCl and 30 mg ml-1 of enzyme consortium. Eight fusant lines with varied mycelial characters were obtained. Among fusants, F6 and F8 did not segregate in the second generation whereas, F4 segregated. F6 and F8 recorded higher BE of 168.05 and 99.95 per cent respectively compared to the parental lines and other fusants. Sporocarp of F6 and F8 was morphologically similar to P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and P. opuntiae respectively; and F8 also exhibited low temperature adaptability. The present investigation indicated the exploitability of two promising isolates viz. P. opuntiae for tropical areas and P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) for cooler regions of Kerala using locally available materials and the standardized cultivation practices. The present study also standardized the protoplast fusion technique between P. cystidiosus (non-coremial) and P. opuntiae; and two fusant lines (F6 and F8) recorded higher BE which can be used for future breeding programmes.ThesisItem Open Access Bioefficacy and soil health impact of flucetosulfuron in wet seeded rice (Oryza sativa L.)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2018) Arya, S R; KAU; Elizabeth, K SyriacThe investigation entitled "Bioefficacy and soil health impact of flucetosulfuron in wet seeded rice (Oryza sativa L.) was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram during the period of 2015-2018. The objectives were to evaluate the bioefficacy of flucetosulfuron in wet seeded rice; to assess its impact on soil health by determining the microbial count, earthworm population, enzyme status and herbicide residue in soil through bioassay using indicator plant as well as to assess the weed seed bank. It was also envisaged to study the in vitro sensitivity of biofertilizer organisms and biocontrol agents to flucetosulfuron. Field experiment was conducted during the I and II crop seasons of 2016- ’17, in a farmer’s field in Kalliyoor Panchayat, Nemom block, Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala, with 12 treatments replicated thrice in Randomized Block Design. The treatments were: T1 : Flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 2-3 DAS, T2 : Flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 2-3 DAS, T3 : Flucetosulfuron @ 30 g ha-1 at 2-3 DAS, T4 : Flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS, T5 : Flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS, T6 : Flucetosulfuron @ 30 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS, T7 : Flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 18-20 DAS , T8 : Flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 18- 20 DAS , T9 : Flucetosulfuron @ 30 g ha-1 at18-20 DAS, T10: Bispyribac sodium @ 25 g ha-1 at 15 DAS, T11: Hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS and T12 : Weedy check. The short duration variety Kanchana was used for the trial. The weed flora in the experimental field comprised of four species of grasses, six species of broad leaved weeds and three species of sedges. Based on density and dry weight, sedges were the predominant group in the experimental field followed by broad leaved weeds and grasses. Application of flucetosulfuron @ 20, 25 and 30g ha-1 at 10-12 and 18-20 DAS (T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 and T9) recorded lower total weed density, total weed dry weight and nutrient removal by weeds and higher total weed control efficiency and were on par with the hand weeding treatment (T11). Yield reduction due to weeds was found to be 52.33 and 55.61 per cent during the I and II crop seasons respectively. The highest grain yield was recorded by the application of flucetosulfuron @ 25 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS (T5) and flucetosulfuron @ 20 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS (T4) during the first and second crop seasons respectively. The same trend was observed in the case of dry matter production also. Pooled analysis of the grain yield for the two seasons indicated the superiority of T5 which recorded the highest grain yield of 8.33 t ha-1. This treatment was on par with the other levels of flucetosulfuron viz., 20 and 30 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS (T4 and T6) and hand weeding treatment (T11). Higher yield attributes, harvest index and nutrient uptake were also recorded for these treatments. However, net income and B:C ratio were significantly lower for hand weeding treatment. Herbicide application did not cause any significant inhibitory effect on the earthworm population and spider count. Application of herbicides increased the microbial population in herbicide treated plots. Flucetosulfuron, at the tested doses (20, 25 and 30 g ha-1) and time of application (2-3, 10-12 and 18-20 DAS), did not show any adverse impact on the activity of soil enzymes (dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase and urease) and soil organic carbon status. To identify the most suitable indicator plant for assessing flucetosulfuron residue in soil, four separate pot culture experiments were conducted using barnyard millet, cucumber, sunflower and maize. Sunflower was identified as the most sensitive indicator plant and shoot length of sunflower was adjudged as the best parameter to assess the flucetosulfuron residue in soil. Bioassay after each field experiment using sunflower revealed that there was no residual toxicity of flucetosulfuron in the post experiment soil. Pot culture experiments were carried out before and after each field experiment, to study the weed seed bank dynamics. Results revealed that non- herbicidal plots recorded higher weed count compared to herbicide applied plots. In all the herbicide treated plots, effective reduction in weed seed bank could be obtained irrespective of the dose of the herbicide. Regarding the time of application, application of flucetosulfuron at 10-12 and 18-20 DAS caused significant depletion of weed seed bank during both the seasons compared to its application at 2-3 DAS. In vitro sensitivity of biofertilizer organisms viz., Azospirillum lipoferum, Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium and Frateuria aurantia to flucetosulfuron indicated that growth of none of the organisms were significantly inhibited by the tested doses of flucetosulfuron. Similarly, in vitro sensitivity to biocontrol agent Trichoderma viride revealed that, at all the tested concentrations of flucetosulfuron, it showed a colony diameter of 9 mm uniformly with zero per cent inhibition indicating the compatibility of the herbicide. The compatibility studies with Pseudomonas fluorescens also revealed the safety of the herbicide. The present study revealed that application of flucetosulfuron @ 20, 25 and 30 g ha-1 at 10-12 DAS was very effective in controlling the weeds and recorded significantly higher grain yield and monetary benefits in wet seeded rice. Application of flucetosulfuron @ 20, 25 and 30 g ha-1 at 2-3/10-12/18-20 DAS had no adverse impact on soil health and was found compatible with the tested biofertilizer organisms (Azospirillum lipoferum, Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megaterium and Frateuria aurantia) and biocontrol agents (Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens).ThesisItem Open Access Breeding cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) for resistance to spotted pod borer (Maruca vitrata Fab.)(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Vellanikkara, 2018) Ambavane Ajinkya Rajendra; KAU; Jiji JosephCowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is important pulse crop rich in nutrients, especially proteins. This crop is cultivated in the tropics of Asia, Africa and other parts of the world. Nevertheless, the production of cowpea is unable to achieve its summit. One of the prime reasons for this is the infestation of a notorious pest, the spotted pod borer, (Maruca vitrata Fab.; Lepidoptera: Crambidae). Spotted pod borer is one of the most important post-flowering pests of cowpea in the tropics. It is a major lepidopteran pest and damage cause to cowpea by the pest almost always crosses economic threshold level. Hence, the present investigation was conducted in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur during 2015 to 2018 with the objective of identification and incorporation of resistance against spotted pod borer in high yielding varieties of cowpea and assessment of parental polymorphism at the molecular level Thirty genotypes of cowpea formed the material for the study. These genotypes were subjected to field screening against spotted pod borer. These genotypes were also evaluated for morphological and biochemical basis of resistance. Five selected genotypes from experiment 1 then hybridised with four high yielding genotypes viz., Geethika, Vellayani Jyothika, Lola and Kashi Kanchan following Line × Tester mating design. Twenty F 1 hybrids evaluated for field resistance and the morphological basis of resistance. Progenies of selected F 1 hybrids grown as F 2 populations and evaluated for same parameters as like F 1 s. Thirty genotypes were also subjected to molecular screening by 40 SSR primers. Wide variation was observed in terms of different damage parameters. Ten genotypes viz., Hridya, Palakkadan thandan payar, EC 300039, EC 98668, EC 101216, IC 52110, IC 39945, IC 2918, IC 39922 and IC 39916 recorded total damage below five per cent. Among them, IC 39922 observed to have no flower bud and flower damage, EC 300039, EC 98668, IC 52110, IC 39945, IC 2918 and IC 39916 recorded no flower damage, whereas, Palakkadan thandan payar, IC 39945, IC 2918 and IC 39947 were free from pod damage. The highest damage was recorded in the variety Bhagyalakshmy (48.46 %) followed by variety Lola (30.04 %). Analysis of the morphological basis of resistance to spotted pod borer revealed the negative correlation of trichome density and length on flower bud, trichome density on the pod and pod wall thickness with respective damage parameters. With respect to the biochemical basis of resistance to spotted pod borer, total sugar content, reducing sugar content and non-reducing sugar content of flower bud and pod showed a positive correlation with damage parameters, but the correlation was not significant. However, the total protein content of pod showed a strong and positive correlation with pod damage. Total phenol content of flower bud showed strong negative correlation with damage parameters. Polyphenol oxidase activity in flower bud and pod exhibited a strong negative correlation with damage parameters. The crude fibre content of pod also showed a strong negative correlation with pod damage. In experiment 3, three SSR primers viz., CLM0061, CLM0295 and CLM0300 recorded high polymorphic information content (0.70, 0.71 and 0.76, respectively). Primer CLM0190 observed to have high amplicon size (307.03-415.73 bp). Jaccard’s similarity coefficient was highest between IC 52118 and IC 39916 (0.643) and was lowest between Kashi Kanchan and TVX-944 (0.022). Cluster analysis of SSR data grouped 30 genotypes in 22 clusters, and the 21 st cluster was observed to have more members (3 genotypes). Most resistant genotype, IC 2918, grouped in a separate cluster which proved its diverse nature from other genotypes. Principal component analysis of SSR data placed three yard-long bean genotypes viz., Geethika, Vellayani Jyothika and Lola near to each other in a two-dimensional score plot. The same analysis also formed two clusters with more number of genotypes which placed resistant and susceptible genotypes separately. In field screening of F 1 hybrids, Hybrid 20 observed to have total damage below 5 per cent. Eight hybrids recorded total damage in the range of 5 to 10 per cent. These hybrids were selected for next experiment. Line × Tester analysis of F 1 s revealed Kashi Kanchan, EC 98668 and IC 2918 as a good combiner for resistance against spotted pod borer. Hybrid 5, Hybrid 6, Hybrid 10, Hybrid 11, Hybrid 13, Hybrid 15, Hybrid 16, Hybrid 17, Hybrid 18, Hybrid 19 and Hybrid 20 observed to have desired negative heterosis (mid-parent) for total damage. In F 2 plant screening, Hybrid 1 population recorded low mean for total damage (6.76 %), whereas, the population of Hybrid 3 recorded high mean (12.17 %). Around 100 plants of F 2 generation recorded total damage below ten per cent. Out of them, around 38 plants also registered good yield. These plants should be further evaluated to isolate high yielding resistant segregants.ThesisItem Open Access Profiling bioactive compounds and nutrients in jackfruit (artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) and developing a jackfruit based textured vegetable protein(Department of Community Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2018) Anila, H L; KAU; Suma DivakarThe investigation entitled “Profiling bioactive compounds and nutrients in Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) and developing a jackfruit based textured vegetable protein‟‟, was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram during the period of 2015-2018. The objectives of the study were to ascertain the bioactive compounds and nutrients present in different jackfruit types. The study also envisaged the improvement of digestive quality of jackfruit through reduction of oligosaccharides and developing a jackfruit based textured vegetable protein. The study was conducted in three experiments; viz. analysis of nutrient and chemical profile along with antioxidant activity of the selected types of jackfruit; analysis of measures for reducing antinutrients in raw jackfruit and development of raw jackfruit based textured vegetable protein. For the component wise analysis, five types of jackfruits viz Muttom varikka, Then varikka, Sindoor, Chempikalom varikka and Local cv Koozha were selected; their raw and ripe stages as well as both bulbs and seeds were analysed separately. Analysis of proximate composition, vitamins, minerals, bioactive compounds, antinutrients and antioxidant activity were covered in the first experiment. The results showed that nutrient wise, raw seeds of Chempikalom and ripe bulbs of Sindoor scored higher than the rest of treatments while with respect to antioxidant activity, ripe seeds of Koozha were better than other treatments. The profiling of nutrients and bioactive compounds in the each part of the experiment is an eye opener on specific features of the common jackfruit type that can be exploited according to varying needs. The delicacy factor for non acceptability of jackfruit, despite its useful composition is that, it has a flatulence factor. This study has thrown light in to the measures to reduce these causative factors. For this purpose in the second part of the experiment, one treatment is with enzyme α galactosidase and another treatment with Saccharomyces cerevisiae was carried out on milled raw jackfruit bulbs and seeds of cv koozha to reduce the level of anti nutrients. Enzyme α galactosidase was premixed with the dry flour of jackfruit seed and jackfruit bulb separately in the ratio 1:100 and the moisture level was varied from 25 – 200% (dough to batter stage). The hydrolysis was carried out for 90 minutes in both jackfruit bulb flour and seed flour. The products were evaluated for the breakdown of oligosaccharides (Raffinose) using HPTLC method. The results showed that the level of Raffinose after treatment with bulb flour and seed flour was seen to decrease with increase in moisture content (25-100%). Thereafter the content slightly staggered and then reduced (125%, 150%, 175%, 200%). However the level of oligosaccharide decreased in comparison to levels in control (0.97 μg g-1). When flours were to be made into batter and subjected to fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae @ 5g/kg for 6 hrs, 8 hrs and 12 hrs and analyzed through HPTLC assay; raffinose content in jackfruit bulb flour reduced from 0.75 μg g-1 to 0.63 μg g-1, 0.58 μg g-1 and 0.74 μg g-1 after 6, 8 and 12 hours respectively. Raffinose content in jackfruit seed flour reduced from 1.28 μg g-1 to 0.42 μg g-1, 0.31 μg g-1 and 0.62 μg g-1 respectively after 6, 8 and 12 hours of fermentation. Considering the reduction of raffinose content and sensory evaluation of the treated flour, eight hour fermentation (F2) was selected as the best treatment. The demand for convenience foods among the literate consumers is on the rise around the globe. It has been argued that convenience is a barrier to achieving proper nutrition using adequate servings. In order to incorporate the fruit based nutritional benefits, it has become important to develop newer and novel foods that could reach the consumers‟ acceptance. With this background an attempt was visualized to develop jackfruit based textured vegetable protein (TVP) to make jackfruit more popular among the health conscious people. In the third experiment, Jackfruit based TVP was formulated by using the ingredients - jackfruit bulb flour and seed flour along with gluten, yeast and soya flour to form chunks using standardized methods. Totally eleven combinations of TVP were worked out. All the eleven treatments were cooked and evaluated by a panel of ten members. Based on the sensory attributes such as appearance, colour, flavour, texture, taste and overall acceptability, the highest score was obtained for T7 which was followed by T8 and these two treatments were seen to be on par. The lowest score was obtained by treatment T4; T7 was taken up for quality analysis, it had a protein content of 61.50g, carbohydrate content of 34.97g and lesser cooking time (7.33 minutes). The physico chemical and textural qualities were on par with soyachunks available in the market. Processed TVP showed good storage stability up to three months. The third part of the study concluded with a positive note on scope of commercializing this jackfruit based protein concentrate. The product is both novel and healthy, raising its popularity for sailing up. Thus, the study finds that there is variation in jackfruit types with respect to nutrients, chemical and bioactive compounds. The efficacy of enzyme α galactosidase and Saccharomyces cerevisiae to reduce oligosaccharide levels in jackfruit flour is feasible. With high acceptable food like meat analogue was also standardized based on jackfruit flours, which can be recommended for commercialization.ThesisItem Open Access Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics(Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Shajma Nafeesa, Basheer; KAU; Sabina George, TThe present study entitled ‘Collection and evaluation of marigold (Tagetes spp.) genotypes for humid tropics was conducted in the Department of Pomology and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2012-2015, with an objective to collect and evaluate the genotypes of Tagetes spp. for growth, yield of fresh flowers and floral attributes in two planting seasons, ie, October and May planting and to select promising genotypes for loose flower production and for landscaping. The experimental material consisted of twenty five genotypes of Tagetes erecta and five genoytpes of Tagetes patula. These were evaluated in the field in a randomized block design with three replications. Significant differences were observed among the genotypes for plant growth characters, foliage characters, flowering and yield characters and flower characters in both planting seasons. In both October and May plantings, TEG 5 and TEG 6 maintained greater plant height and the lowest plant height were found to be in TPG 17 and TPG 18. The maximum plant spread was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TPG 21 in May planting. The highest number of primary branches per plant was recorded in TEG 6 followed by TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 16 followed by TEG 5 and TEG 8 in May planting. The highest number of secondary branches was recorded by TEG 14 in October planting and by TPG 21 in May planting. Among flowering and yield characters, in October planting, the lowest number of days to flowering was recorded in Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 19, TPG 18 and TPG 21 (33.33 days) and the lowest number of days to flower opening in TPG 21 and TPG 17 (45.33 days). In May planting, the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 recorded the lowest number of days to flower initiation (49.00) and flower opening (68.33). TEG 29 recorded the longest flowering duration in both October and May planting. The maximum number of flowers per plant and flower yield per plant was observed in TEG 16 in October planting. In May planting, TPG 18 followed by TEG 16 recorded the maximum number of flowers. The genotype TEG 16 also recorded the highest flower yield per plant in May planting and the highest number of viable seeds per plant in both the seasons. TEG 11 recorded higher values for fresh weight of flower in both the seasons of investigation. In October planting and May planting, the highest value for petal meal per kg of fresh flowers was recorded in TEG 29 and the maximum petal meal per ha was recorded in TEG 5 in October planting and in TEG 29 in May planting. The highest total carotenoid content was recorded by TEG 3 followed by TEG 2 in both the seasons. Among the flower characters, TEG 5 the highest number of ligulate floret whorls and TEG 11 recorded the highest value for length of floret, flower diameter, girth of floral receptacle in both the seasons. Significantly higher flower stalk length was observed for TEG 3 and the longest vase life was recorded by TEG 7 in both the seasons of investigation. Genetic variability studies showed that genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was higher than phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) for all the characters. High GCV and PCV and high heritability was observed for all the characters studied. Correlation studies revealed a highly significant positive correlation of flower yield with number of flowers per plant, plant spread, fresh weight of flowers, length of floret, crop duration and number of secondary branches per plant. Path analysis studies showed that fresh weight of flowers had the highest direct positive effect on flower yield per plant followed by number of flowers per plant and plant height. Cluster analysis based on D2 values divided the thirty genotypes of marigold into six clusters with Cluster V recording the maximum number of genotypes and Cluster I, the minimum number of genotypes.Seasonal evaluation of the genotypes showed that May planting was found to be better than October planting in terms of plant growth characters, flower yield and flower characteristics. Earlier initiation of flowering was however observed in October planting in all the genotypes. The present study revealed that, the Tagetes erecta genotypes TEG 5, TEG 29, TEG 25, TEG 30, TEG 22, TEG 11 and TEG 7 may be suitable for commercial loose flower production. The genotype TEG 16 with semiupright habit may be suited for plant compactness and flower production. The genotypes TEG 3 and TEG 2, with higher carotenoid content may be suitable for pigment extraction. The Tagetes patula genotypes, TPG 21 and TPG 18 with dwarf spreading plant habit and the Tagetes erecta genotype TEG 11 with semiupright plant habit may be suitable as flowering ground covers in landscaping. The wide range of genetic variability available in marigold genotypes can be utilized for further crop improvement programmes through direct selection and hybridization.ThesisItem Open Access Management of banana pseudostem weevil, Odoiporus longicollis (Olivier), using safe chemicals and bio-rational methods(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Sivakumar, T; KAU; Jiji, TA study on ‘Management of banana pseudostem weevil, Odoiporus longicollis (Olivier), using safe chemicals and bio-rational methods’ was conducted at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani and in farmer’s field during 2012-2015. The main objective was to evolve strategies for managing the pest using safe chemicals and bio-rational methods. The study involved documentation of the pest status and farmers’ management practices, evaluation of the efficacy of different insecticides, botanicals and bio-agents under laboratory and field conditions and determination of harvest time insecticide residues in edible parts. Status of pests in banana was documented from Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts during 2013. O. longicollis incidence in banana cv. Nendran varied from 5.36 per cent in Kollam to 7.64 per cent in Pathanamthitta. Erionota sp., Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), Polytus mellerborgi (Boheman), Coccus hesperidum L. were observed as the emerging pests from the area. Pest management practices adopted by banana farmers, documented from the above districts, revealed the use of sixteen types of pesticides, including organic preparations. No specific parasite or predator was recorded from field except earwigs and red ants. Efficacy of insecticides, botanicals and bio-agents for the management of O. longicollis was evaluated under laboratory conditions. Thiamethoxam (0.01%), emamectin benzoate (0.002%) and cartap hydrochloride (0.1%) caused 100 per cent mortality of adults and grubs of the pest within 36 h after treatment. Among the botanicals, cassava leaf distillate based formulation, ‘Nanma’ (5%) caused 36.67 per cent mortality of adults and grubs, whereas neem soap caused 36.67 and 16.67 per cent mortality of adults and grubs, respectively. Among the bio agents tested, Metarhizium majus Bisch, Rehner and Humber (ICAR-CPCRI) 2% caused 80 per cent mortality of grubs on the seventh day of inoculation. Compatibility of insecticides, fungicides and botanicals with M. majus was tested using poisoned media technique. The fungicides viz., propiconazole (0.1%), tebuconazole (0.1%), mancozeb (0.3%) and carbendazim (0.1%) resulted in total growth inhibition of M. majus, while thiamethoxam (0.01% and 0.03%), cartap hydrochloride (0.05%) and neem soap (1.0%) were found compatible. Application methods of insecticides, botanicals and bio-agents were standardised through field experiment at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2013-2014. Among the application methods, leaf axil filling (LAF) and injection of thiamethoxam (0.01% and 0.03%) recorded a yield of 10.98 and 10.88 kg plant-1, respectively. In the case of biopesticides, the highest yield (6.43 kg plant-1) was recorded with swabbing + LAF application of M. majus (20g l-1), whereas among botanicals, spraying +LAF gave the highest yield (8.8 kg plant-1) for neem soap (1.0%) application. Prophylactic and curative methods for the management of the pest, using thiamethoxam, neem soap, cassava leaf based preparation and M. majus, were tested in farmer’s field at Konni, Pathanamthitta district during 2014-2015. In prophylactic method thiamethoxam injection (0.03%) at 5th and 6th months after planting recorded an yield of 10.67 kg plant-1, followed by thiamethoxam (0.01%) leaf axil filling (10.32 kg plant-1) at 5th and 6th months after planting. Significantly higher value for BC ratio (2.44) was recorded for thiamethoxam (0.03%) injection. The BC ratio was 2.33 for thiamethoxam (0.01%) leaf axil filling. Application of M. majus (2%) at five months after planting, followed by thiamethoxam LAF (0.01%) at 6th month after planting yielded 8.82 kg plant-1. In curative method, plant survival was the highest (80 per cent) for thiamethoxam injection (0.03%). However, a low BC ratio of 0.86 was observed. Thiamethoxam injection (0.03%) and leaf axil filling (0.01%) were on par with chlorpyrifos (0.03%), as curative method. No detectable residue of thiamethoxam on any edible parts of the plant was observed at the time of harvest. To conclude, ‘Nendran’ was found to be the most susceptible banana cultivar to O. longicollis. Thiamethoxam at 0.01 per cent and 0.03 per cent were compatible with the entomopathogen, M. majus. Prophylactic method using thiamethoxam injection @ 0.03% and leaf axil filling @ 0.01%, both at five and six months after planting, were found effective, eco friendly and economical practice for O. longicollis management. The application of entomopathogenic fungi M. majus at five months after planting followed by thiamethoxam (0.03%) injection at six months after planting was also effective for managing the pest.ThesisItem Open Access Integrated management of viral diseases of bittergourd (momordica charantia L.)(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2018) Radhika, N S; KAU; Umamaheswaran, KThe present research work entitled ‘Integrated management of viral diseases of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) was carried out in the College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2014-2017, with the objectives to study the occurrence and distribution of viruses in bitter gourd in Thiruvananthapuram, Idukki and Palakkad, immunomolecular characterization of the viruses, and screening of antiviral chemicals, antiviral principles of animal, plant and microbial origin for the management of the disease. In the suvey conducted at five locations in Thiruvanaanthapuram district, Pappanchani area recorded highest incidence of viral disease (60%) while highest Vulnerability Index (V.I) was recorded from Vellayani (56.00). In Idukki district, six major bitter gourd cultivating areas were surveyed among which Rajakumary area recorded the highest disease incidence (100%) and V.I (82.00). In Palakkad district, five locations were surveyed, among which panackatri and Thekkepotta recorded highest disease incidence of 88% and highest V.I (69.00). The major insects associated with the crop were whitefly (Bemisia tabaci (Genadius) with an incidence of 10-25%, aphids (Aphis gossypii glover) with an incidence of 10-40%, Jassids (Empoasca (Empoasca) motti Pruthi) with an incidence of 10-30% and mites with an incidence of 10-50%. Phyllody and little leaf symtoms (20% incidence) were also recorded in bittetgourd form Rajakumary and Rajakkad areas in Idukki. Flat limb and multiple proliferation of shoot tip were observed at many fields in Idukki. Symptoms associated with the disease include yellow mottle, mosaic,blistering, leaf curl and reduction in leaf size. Yellow mosaic and blistering is seen in severe infection finally leading to stunting of the plant, reduced flowering an fruiting and hairyness on stem. Mechanical transmission of the virus on Datura stramonium produced yellow lacal lesions indicating the presenceof Bean Golden mosaic virus (Begomo) in the infected leaf extract. This leaf extract also produced local lesions on othe indicator hosts like Chenopodium amaranticolor and Gomphrena globosa indicating the presence of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) or Potato virus Y (PVY). The viruses were transmitted by whiteflies (20%) and aphids (30%) from infected bittetgourd plants to healthy seedlings. Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius)) and aphids (Aphis gossypii Glover) are the vectors of the respective viruses Wedge grafting diseases scion on to 3-5 leaf stage healthy seedling of bittergourd produced symptoms of infection within ten days. KAU varieties Preethi and Priyanka were found to be susceptible to infection with preethi expressing a V.I of 70.80 and Priyanka expressing a V.I of 62.50 respectively. Ensyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Dot immunobinding assay (DIBA) revealed the presence of three viruses belonging to Begomo, CMV and PVY group causing an mixed infection in bittergourd. The presence of all the three viruses were also confirmed in electron micrograph, Begomovirus as twin particles of size 18-20 X 30nm,CMVas single particles of 18nm and PVY as lonog flexuous rod of size 750nm. PCR amplification of coat protein gene (cp gene) of virus isolates from all the three districts yielded an amplicon of size approximately equal to 570 bp. Idukki and Palakkad isolates showed 94% identity to Tomato leaf Curl Virus isolate TNUDU BGI Coat Protein (AVI) gene while Trivandrum isolate showed 95% identity to Tomato leaf Curl Virus isolate TNPDU BG4 Coat Protein (AV1) gene . Phylogenetic tree constructed using multiple sequence alignment programme showed close relation between Begomo viruses identified in bittergourd from different districts. Studies on defense related enzymes such as peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and phenyl alanine ammonialyase PAL) showed significant activity of PO and PPO in diseased plants than in healthy plants and the activity was on par in healthy and diseased for PAL. Protien profile of healthy and diseased at different days after virus inoculation through grafting indicated the production of novel proteins in diseased. There was no difference in the native profile of peroxidase in healthy and diseased at 15 days after virus inoculation. An additional isozyme band with a Rm value of 0.5 was observed in diseased at 45 days after virus inoculation. Management of the disease with antiviral chemicals and antiviral principles of plant, animal and microbial origin was undertaken as pot culture studies with pre and post inoculation of treatments. Twelve treatments with three replications each were laid out in completely randomized design for the evaluation. The treatments included Aspirin at two levels of 100 and 150 ppm, Salicylic acid (SA) at two levels of 100 and 150 ppm and Acibenzolar S methyl (ASM) at 50 and 75 ppm concentration, and two commercial formulations viz., Perfect and virus –Ex at 0.5 and 1.0 ml concentrations. The treatments were applied three times at 10 days interval. Pre application of thrice sprapying of Acibenzolar S methyl (ASM), 75 ppm concentration (V.I-35.00) at ten days interval was statistically significant over other treatments followed by ASM-50 ppm (V.I-41.33). Post application of antiviral chemicals also showed a statistically significant effect of three times spraying ASM-50 ppm(V.I-25.00) at ten days interval followed by spraying of Virus Ex 1ml L-1 (VThe best eight treatments with control was laid out as Randomised Block Design at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during February to May 2017 as a field trial to study the effect of treatments on natural incidence of the viruses in the susceptible variety Preethi. The treatment, three sprays of ASM-50 ppm (V.I-28.33) at ten days interval ws on par with buttermilk (Three times dilution of curd) (V.I-39.16). Yield was also significantly high in ASM-50 ppm (437g plant-1) followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens talc based formulation (2%) (233 g plant-1)among the treatments.
