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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Developing baked and confectionery products based on sweet potato(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Elizabeth, Augustine; KAU; Chellammal, SA study on ‘Developing baked and confectionery products based on sweet potato' was conducted with major objective to develop value added baked and confectionery products based on sweet potato flour. The study comprised of standardisation of raw materials, product development, assessing nutritional significance, organoleptic quality studies, preference tests and shelf life studies. The five baked and five confectionery products was formulated with sweet potato flour as the basic ingredient. Three combinations were tried with different proportions of sweet potato flour. The other ingredients added to sweet potato flour were maida, egg, sugar, ghee and skimmed milk powder. The selection of best combination was based on amino acid scores chemical scores and cost benefit ratio. A combination with 50 per cent sweet potato flour and 50 per cent maida was selected as the ideal combination, since it secured higher amino acid score and chemical score. The cost of the combination was also found to be satisfactory. The nutritional composition of the food product revealed that the product contained all the nutrients in optimum quantity. The nutritional quality of the developed food products after processing with reference to calories, proteins, β carotene, calcium, phosphorous and zinc were determined through suitable laboratory techniques. ISI type tests specified to such products were administered to the developed foods and the values were comparable with ISI specification. Organoleptic studies of the developed food products was assessed by two groups of consumers viz., college students and technical experts. The parameters tested were appearance, colour, flavour, texture and taste. The analysis revealed that both the baked and confectionery products got highest scores. Baked products had a slightly higher mean score, compared to confectionary products. In the preference tests of the developed products conducted among farm women of Venganoor, Srikariyam and Kaliyoor panchayath and entrepreneurs in Thiruvananthapuram city were also showed the same result. Moisture and insect infestation were-lower in flour stored in glass and plastic containers. Effect of storage on moisture and over all acceptability were revealed that there was an increase in moisture content during the fourth week of storage period. There was an increase in moisture during storage and the difference was statistically significant. The overall acceptability was found to be decreased after storage. There was no insect infestation in the developed products during the storage period. The assessment of microbiological quality revealed that all the products were attacked by different types of microorganisms. The result of the present study suggest that new methods of processing could be introduced to add value to the crop and it is possible to develop different types of processed products based on sweet potato products which may result in increased consumption of tuber in the future and also for building up a healthy rural population.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of iron and vitamin supplementation on iron profile of anemic adolescent girls(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Kavita, M S; KAU; Prema, LThe study entitled, "Effect of iron and vitamin supplementation on iron profile of anemic adolescent girls", was conducted to assess the magnitude of iron deficiency anemia among adolescent girls; to find out the direct and indirect effects of causative factors and to evaluate the relative effect of supplementation of iron with vitamins on the iron status of anemic adolescent females. The study was limited to Neyyattinkara, Nedumangadu and Trivandurn Taluks of Trivandrum district. Rapid assessment technique was administered to determine haemoglobin and to indentify 225 adolescent girls suffering from iron deficiency anemia (with Hb ::::;; 12g1dl). Socio economic status of the girls was determined by using a suitably structured schedule while nutritional variables responsible for the incidence of anemia were determined through assessing their mean food intake by 24 hour recall method and by ascertaining their anthropometric measurements using universally accepted techniques. Clinical examination was conducted to assess the health variables responsible for iron deficiency anemia. A metabolic experiment of two months duration was conducted to find the effect of iron and vitamin supplementation on iron profile of the moderately anemic girls. For this, the basal diet which gave RDA of nutrients was supplemented by 60 mg iron and 500 ug folic acid, 600 /-lg equivalent vitamin A, 1.2 mg equivalent vitamin B~ and ~ 40 mg equivalent vitamin C in different treatment groups either in the form of tablets 351 Supplements in the form of tablets produced highest and rapid changes in haematological and iron profile while the greatest positive changes in growth and physical endurance were observed when the supplements were given in the form of food. Hence for proper iron nutriture, iron source with high bioavailable iron is necessary along with balanced intake of other nutrients.ThesisItem Open Access Nutritional adequacy of diets in selected hostel messes(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 1999) Beatrice, P J; KAU; Nandini, P VA study entitled "Nutritional adequacy of diets in selected hostel messes" was undertaken to assess the personal characteristics, dietary habits, foods expenditure pattern, frequency use of various foods,food preference, percapita availability of foods, actual food intake, nutrient intake, percapita availability of nutrient, energy intake and energy expenditure, nutritional status of the inmatesand nutritional status index of selected inmates in the hostels. The average food expenditure pattern of the inmates in the three hostels revealed that the MCLH spent more money when compared to other two hostels. On analysing the personal characteristics of inmates it was observed that the inmates of the hostel will exposed to mass media by reading newspapers, magazines and weeklies. Viewing of television programme was also found to be more popular among the inmates than listening to the radio programme. Dietary habits of inmates were assessed and revealed that the respondents were non vegetarian. Cereals, pulses, vegetables, green leafy 2 vegetables, roots and tubers, milk, fish, fats and oils, sugar and spices were found to be high frequently used foods among the inmates in the three hostels. At the same time fruit, milk and egg were less frequently used food among the inmates in the three hostels. The inmates liked • fried foods and sweet preparations. Consumption of cereals, pulses, other vegetables, roots and tubers, milk, fish and meat were above the recommended dietary allowances (R.D.A) and nutrients such as calorie, protein, calcium, retinol, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin 'C' were comparatively higher in comparison with R.D.A. But the use of iron was less in comparison with R.D.A. Energy intake and energy expenditure of inmates were surveyed and indicated that majority of the inmates spent less energy when compared with energy intake. Weight for age and height for age of inmates were below the NCHS standards. Waist I Hip ratio of inmates were found to be normal. Mid upper arm circumference and triceps skin fold thickness of inmates in the three hostels were assessed and found that only few inmates were found to be normal. Anaemia, dental caries and thyroid enlargement were the most common clinical manifestations among the inmates in the three hostels. Normal haemoglobin level was noticed only in negligible inmates. The nutritional status index of the inmates in AGCLH were better than the inmates in other two hostels.ThesisItem Open Access Nutritional studies on the bioavailability of iron from cereals and pulses(Department of Home Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Jainita, M Mehta; KAU; Usha, VNutritional studies to evaluate the bioavailability of iron was conducted among three selected cereals i.e., rice, wheat and ragi and six pulses i.e., Bengal gram, green gram, black gram, horse gram, cowpea and soya bean. The results of the study indicated that among cereals though the total iron was maximum for ragi but the absolute available iron was less mainly due to its high fibre and tannin content. Its availability was considerably improved by germinating ragi for 48 hours when cereals were processed, refined wheat flour had the maximum iron availability owing to the reduction of fibre and phytic acid content on refining, while ragi had the least iron availability. Among pulses the total and absolute available iron was maximum for bengal gram and soya bean and least for black gram which was found to be high in phytin phosphorus and tannin content. The total and absolute available iron increased on dehulling pulses except in the case of soyabean. This increase in iron was mainly due to the fact that most of the tannins reside in the seed coat of pulses which are removed on dehulling. A further increase in the iron content was observed on germinating the pulses due to the break down of antinutritional factors during germination. A slight increase in the absolute available iron of fermented and unfermented idli batter was observed which became more available on cooking by steaming. On germinating and roasting ragi almost a four to six fold increase in the absolute available iron was observed while in pulse the absolute available iron almost doubled on roasting bengal gram while a ten to fifteen fold increase was observed in black gram. A further increase in iron was observed on roasting the pulses after dehulling. Similarly, on frying cereals and pulses only a slight increase in total and absolute available iron was observed which considerably increased when pulses were fried after dehulling. The total iron and absolute available iron was maximum for pressure cooked rice rather than rice boiled by excess water method. Similar results were observed when pulses were boiled after soaking due to the leaching of appreciable quantities of tannins. A further increase in iron content was observed on pressure cooking the soaked pulses. The effect of different cooking vessels on the total and absolute available iron, observed by different cooking and processing methods revealed that the total iron was maximum for cereals and pulses cooked in iron vessels mainly due to the contamination of iron from the iron cook ware. The absolute available iron was maximum for cereals and pulses cooked in inert vessels like glass, mud and tufflon coated vessels and it was least in the case of aluminium vessels which react with food constituents forming complex compounds which makes the iron unavailable. Phytin phosphorus, an inhibitor of iron absorption was noted to reduce on dehulling and germinating of cereals and pulses thus increasing the absolute available iron. Among pulses, whole black gram contained the maximum amount of phytin phosphorus and tannins while green gram contained the least amount of phytin phosphorus. It was observed that the tannin content in pulses greatly reduced on dehulling pulses as the tannins are in the seed coat, consequently increasing the iron availability. When ragi was germinated the tannin content reduced increasing the total, ionisable and absolute available iron. On analysing the fibre content of cereals it was observed that whole wheat flour had the maximum amount of crude fibre which reduced to a minimum on refining thus increasing the absolute available iron. Similar results were observed when ragi was germinated where the fibre content reduced with increasing hours of germination up to 48 hours. When pulses were dehulled, fibre was seen to reduce greatly simultaneously increasing the iron availability. On germinating pulses, similar results were observed up to 48 hours of germination indicating that 48 hours of germination is adequate for maximum reduction in fibre content. Pulses do not contain ascorbic acid other than when they are germinated. Thus with increase in germination time the ascorbic acid is seen to increase simultaneously increasing the total and absolute available iron. Among the pulses analysed bengal gram was found to have the highest ascorbic acid content on germination. Iron absorption studies from typical Kerala diets revealed that diet III containing heme iron had the highest ionisable iron while all the diets were high in iron absorption inhibitors. Modification of the local diets by supplementing or substituting foods containing iron absorption enhancers or by processing methods increased the absolute available iron from the diets. Thus by substituting or supplementing locally available, low cost foods, high in bioavailable iron to rice based diets would enhance the absolute available iron of our diets.ThesisItem Open Access Development of Papaya (Carica papaya L.) based blended products(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Beena Cherian; KAU; Soffi CheriyanThe present study entitled "Development of papaya(Carica papaya L.) based blended products" was undertaken todevelop innovative products viz. nectar, fruit butter, fruit leather and sauce from the less utilised papaya fruit. The study was mainly aimed at formulation of fascinating blended products from papaya inorder to overcome the poor consumer appeal and low popularity of plain papaya products. Papaya is a highly nutritious and less expensive fruit. CO-2 variety which is good in taste and attractive in colour was selected for the study. Product -standardisation was undertaken by experimenting three different proportion of papaya and mango pulp such as 55:45, 60:40 and 65:35. In the preparation of blended nectar and blended fruit leather, the formula with 60:40 ratio was most acceptable. In the formulation of blended fruit butter the proportion with 55:45 papaya and mango pulp contributed the best quality. While for sauce 65:35 ratio presented a superior result. The organoleptic qualities of the standardised blended papaya products were found to be highly superior to that to plain papaya products. Blended papaya leather, nectar and sauce were even better than plain mango items in their overall sensory attributes, while blended butter was well comparable. The chemical composition of blended products remained highly satisfactory and better balancing than plain products in various constituents. The products developed were found to have good quality standards in agreement with FPO specification. The cost analysis of the products highlighted that the expense for the production of plain papaya products was identified as the cheapest followed by blended products. While the cost for mango products were found to be the highest. The fruit product yield ratio. when calculated indicated that the product yield on blending was slightly lower to that obtained with papaya alone but higher than the yield observed on plain mango products. Consumer acceptance study disclosed that papaya-mango blended products bagged much wider acceptability among the consumers than the similar plain papaya products. When nectar and sauce were developed by blending papaya and mango, the acceptability of end users to these products remained even higher to that of mango nectar and sauce. So also the blended butter and blended leather catched a similar appreciation to that of mango butter and leather. Consumer preference ranking of blended papaya products revealed that fruit leather was then most preferred product. For second and third preference the consumers identified nectar and sauce respectively. While blended butter was placed at the forth choice. The products developed were assessed periodically for its shelf life performance on chemical, organoleptic and microbial changes. The evaluation of nectar for six month revealed that there was only minor changes in chemical composition upon storage. Sensory attributes namely appearance. colour, flavour, taste and consistency of nectar were well retained on storage being observed only a marginal degradation in the scores. Negative results were obtained on microbial examination. Observation on storage behaviour of fruit butter for four months revealed its stability with respect to chemical constituents. The changes in sensory quality parameters of fruit butter on storage was found to be nominal. Samples studied were free of deteriorative organism during storage. Storage performance on chemical parameters of fruit leather observed only tangible changes with eight months. Corresponding with the storage changes in each sensory parameter there was a little downfall in overall acceptability. The products also confirmed its safety upon eight months as proved in the microbial examination conducted. Monthly evaluation of sauce samples remained highly sound up to six months as there was no description of undesirable changes in chemical constituents. Storage favoured all sensory attributes of blended sauce better than that of mango and papaya sauce with the minimum percentage quality 1055. The stored product failed to show any evidence to microbial deterioration. The study highlighted the feasibility of introducing blended papaya products into the market with promising consumer demands thereby contributing value addition to papaya fruit. The introduction of such diverse forms of processed products can offer variety to consumers along with creating competition in the market.ThesisItem Open Access Feeding practices and nutritional status of children belonging to high risk families(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Sreeja, K P; KAU; Vimalakumari, N KA study was conducted at Kalikavu Panchayat of Malappuram district to assess the feeding practices and nutritional status of children belonging to high risk families. The socio economic and dietary back ground of the selected families from the area was ascertained to assess their influence the feeding and current dietary pattern. The study was conducted at two levels; one on a macrosample of 130 children consisting of 100 children belonging to the experimental group (50 infants and 50 toddlers) and 30 children in the control group (15 infants and 15 toddlers). Out of these children a subsample of 30 children constituting 20 per cent of the total sample, selected at random from the macro sample. At the onset of the study an attempt was made to id e n t if y the at r i s k f am i lie s 0 f the are a wit h the s c a I e developed by Srilatha and Gopinathan (1995) and from about 200 families thus identified, 130 families having at least one chi Id in the age group between 6 months and 23 months were selected for the study. This initial survey revealed that presence of chi ldren be low 5 years of age, lack of access to safe drinking water and low employment status were the major family risk factors observed among 60 per cent of the families. Another survey was again conducted among the 130 chi ldren to find out the extent of prevalence of chi Id ri sk factors identified by Ghosh (1992). Low birth weight, lesser spacing between children, repeated infections and working mother were identified as major child risk factors prevalent among 65 per cent of families. To find out the socio economic background of the subjects an interview was conducted. The data obtained on these lines revealed that all the subjects belonged to backward co mm un i tie s wit h a m a j 0 r i t y bel 0 n gin g t 0 s c h e dui e d cas t e communi ties. A joint fami ly system wi t h the predominance of females children was found in the area. The occupational status revealed that majority (51.33 per cent) were agricul- tural labourers with a monthly income below Rs. 1000. They were found to be living in their own small k a t c h a houses without electricity. They had no potable water supply and sani t ar y latrines. The• above facts revealed that all factors except religion and caste could negatively influence the nutritional status of the subjects. Feeding practices of the infants and toddlers were in the habit of giving p r e l a c t e a I feeds and breast feeding was initiated from the first day itself. They fed their children 4-6 times a day. Majority of the mothers (more than 50 per cent) had started supplementary feeding between 4 and 7 months. Rag i , banana flour, rice flour, cow's/goat's/buffaloe's milk were given as the first supplement. The dietary pattern of toddlers were found to be inadequate. Problems related to weaning such as vomiting, diarrhoea, constipation and colic pain were common among the children. Participation in nutrition intervention programmes by the infants and toddlers selected as subjects was found to be most unsatisfactory. An enquiry on the pattern of immunization revealed that majority (60 per cent) of the subjects were only partially immunized. The growth of the subjects were assessed by anthropometry. The anthropometric measurements such as weight, he i gh t, mid upper arm, head, and ches t circumferences of the subjects when compared with standards revealed that they were significantly lower than that of standards. Further analysis of the data revealed that only 19 per cent of infants and toddlers were normal, while the remaining 81 per cent suffered from different grades of malnutrition. When the rate of growth of these children were measured over a period of 3 months, three times, during the study also revealed that 95 per cent of infants and toddlers did not exhibit significant increments, indicating limitation in growth which has been identified as a risk factor. Detailed dietary survey conducted on a s ub s amp l e of 20 per cent of total subjects by one day recall among infants and by weighment among toddlers revealed that diets of infants and toddlers were found to be ill balanced both in terms of quantity as well as quality. The clinical examination of the subjects revealed that non specific symptoms such as sparse hair, discolouration as we 11 as oedema and spec if i c symptoms such as anaemi a were found among 64 per cent of infants and 54 per cent of toddlers of experimental and control groups. In a nutshell the study revealed that more than 80 per cent of children belonging to selected high risk families were malnourished. All the subjects were living with several risk factors which could deteriorate or negatively influence their nutritional status. Statistical analysis of the data pertaining to NSI as well as the presence of risk factors, revealed that illiteracy, unemployment, lack of access to safe drinking water, absence of sanitary latrine, working mother, low income, low birth weight, as well as inadequate weight gain during a period of 3 months, repeated infections, short birth interval between two children, birth order of four and above, late initiation of breast feeding, and late introduction of supplementary food, weaning problems and nature of caretakers were all found to have significant negative impact on nutritional status of the subjects under focus. Based on t he genera 1 observations of the study the nutritional status of these selected infants and toddlers were found to be poor. To improve the nutri t ional status it is essential to improve the dietary practices as well as the socio economic and living conditions of the families to which the subjects belong, through constant motivation, education and monitoring.ThesisItem Open Access Impact of soy based energy food on the nutritional status and performance of adolescent athletes(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Rohini Nair; KAU; Chellammal, SThe present study on "The impact of soy based energy food on the nutritional status and performance of adolescent athletes", was initiated using soy grit as the basic ingredient. Other ingredients used were milk powder, malted wheat, maida, cassava, rice and sweet potato. The principles governing the selection of the best combination of ingredients were nutritional adequacy, overall acceptability and cost. The combination of soy, malted wheat and milk powder in the proportion of 5 :4: 1 which secured high scores for the development of energy food. Type tests specified by the Bureau of Indian Standards administered to the food revealed that the product satisfied the 'BIS' specification for similar products. The energy and protein content was even higher than specified. Ten types of biscuits such as plain, butter, chocholate, grnger, sweet-salty, dates, jam and melt-in-mouth biscuits were standardised in the laboratory using the formulated energy food. The most preferred biscuit for the conduct of the feeding trial PyefeAevt(£ was selected based on the organoleptic tests, ," ',,;:":: _ <.. of the consumers and cost. The tests revealed that both butter and chocholate biscuits were preferred by .most of the consumers. Chocholate biscuit was selected with regard to its lower cost of production when compared to butter biscuit. The quality parameters of the biscuit were comparable with 'BIS' specification. The impact of the food on the nutritional status and performance was assessed on adolescent athletes (girls). Athletes from a local sports hostel in the age group of 11 to 14 years were selected for this purpose. The nutritional status of the athletes assessed through anthropometric measurements (height, weight, arm and chest circumference), clinical profile and biochemical estimation recorded a significant improvement with special reference to weight, arm circumference, haemoglobin and serum protein levels of the athletes. The performance of the athletes after the incorporation of the energy food was assessed using aerobic, anaerobic and strength tests. A significant improvement in all the above tests were recorded. The above observations and findings of the study revealed that the developed energy food in the form of biscuits can be effectively used as a supplement for improving the health and thereby enhancing the performance of athletes especially young athletes.ThesisItem Open Access Nutritional profile of pregnant women with reference to Iron(Department of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1999) Juna Paul, L; KAU; Prema, LThe study entitled "Nutritional profile of pregnant women with reference to iron" comprises information on the influence of various socio-economic and dietary factors on the development of iron deficiency in pregnant women. The pregnant women surveyed were classified into four 2.. 13 groups based on selected socio-economic variables . They were Hindus (forward communities) residing in joint/extended families and had their own homes and source of income were not from regular employment. Eventhough educated they had no role in social organisations and decision making. Expend i ture on food was high but was insufficient in quantity and quality. This was reflected in the daily meal pattern adopted by these women. Their diets contained very low amounts of iron enhancers and haemopoetic constituents but high amounts of iron inhibitors. Daily time utilization by the women revealed judicious distribution. Energy expenditure and consumption pattern also revealed positive balance in energy utilization. However anaemia was widely prevalent among these women. Anthropometric measurements also indicated deficient nutritional profile. Data generated from micro samples on food intake by weighment was also supporting the information elicited through recall method from macro samples. Bioavailable iron from their diets was also found to be low. Haematological findings through laboratory analysis confirmed the data generated through clinical examination.ThesisItem Open Access Food consumption pattern and nutritional status of women agricultural labourers of Ollukkara block, Thrissur District(Department of Home Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1999) Smitha, M E; KAU; Omana PavunnyThe present study on "Food consumption pattern and nutritional status of women agricultural labourers of Ollukkara Block, Thrissur District" was carried out to asses the socio economic status, food consumption pattern and nutritional status of women agricultural labourers within the age group of 18 to 45 years. The study was carried out in 3 panchayats of Ollukkara Block where there was maximum agricultural operations. The selected panchayats were Madakkathara, Ollukkara and Panancheri. From each panchayat one ward was randomly selected. Women agricultural labourers within the age group of 18 to 45 years were randomly selected from the selected wards. The findings of the present study are given as follows Majority of the labourer families surveyed were nuclear type with patriarchal family system. Less than 30 age group was more common and their literacy rate was satisfactory 10 some extent. The ramify size ranged between 4 to 6 and majority of the income levels were with in Rs. 100 I to 2500. Land possession was meagre and majority of the labourer families owned the land through purchase and some of them inherited the land from parents. Maximum proportion of income was spent on food. items and small per cent of their income was saved by majority otthe families. All the families owned a house and most of them were mud built and tiled. The houses were occupied with separate kitchen and 3 to 5 rooms were present in most of them. Drinking water, lavatory and electrical facilities were satisfactory. Most of the families used wood as fuel and some of them used saw dust and kerosene also. Expenditure for fuel purchase was significant even if fuels were collected from surround i ngs. As it medical aid majority of the families depended on Primary Health Centres (PHC). Some famiiies spent significant portion of their income for medical services. The attainment of general information through various media was satisfactory to some extent. Most of the women worked for 8 to 10 hours in the field and 3 to 5 hours in the home. All the families surveyed were non vegetarians. Maximum of the food expenditure was for cereals followed by roots and tubers, other vegetables, pulses, fish, sugar, oils and fats etc. Frequency score of 100 was got for cereals, other vegetables, oils and fats, spices and condiments and sugars. Medium frequently used foods were comprised of pulses, roots and tubers and fish. Milk and milk products, green leafy vegetables, egg, meat and fruits were included in the list of less frequently used food items. All the schoolers, adolescents and old people and majority of the pre schoolers, pregnant and lactating women consumed ordinary home diets without any special inclusion of nutritious foods. Before cooking, the food items were washed only t\VO times by majority and a minor group washed it three or more times. Boiling was the commonly practised cooking method for various food items. Three meal pattern was more common and based on the accessibility of food stuffs and money most of them planned the meals. Equal importance to all the family members in food distribution was observed. Consumption of raw vegetables was meagre and majority of the families reused the left over foods. Practice of drinking water without boiling was more common. Diet modification during disease conditions were observed. Kanji (rice gruel), kanji water, tender coconut water, fatfree pappads etc. were the modifications for different types of diseases. The mothers had started breast feeding of the baby soon after birth and they continued it for 1 to 3 years. Weaning between the age of 2 to 5 months was more common and the weaning foods included were banana, suji, ragi etc. The mean body weight of the sample was lower than the standard body weight suggested by ICMR (1989) and the observed mean height was 151.6 cm. Normal BMI values were observed among more than half of the sample. Low weight with normal BM! and Grade I Chronic Energy Deficiency (CED) were also observed among some women. Mild and severe dental caries were the most prominent clinical deficiency symptom. Low haemoglobin status was more common. The deficient intake of fruits, egg, green leafy vegetables, milk and milk products and all the other food items except cereals and other vegetables were observed. The deficient intake of fat, protein, calories, calcium, iron, retinol and riboflavin were observed and only the intake of nicotinic acid and thiamine were adequate. All the labourers showed negative energy balance when compared the daily energy intake with the daily energy expenditure. Knowledge and attitude regarding health and nutrition was satisfactory to some extent, while the practice score was a poor indicator.
