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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Bio farming in vegetables : effect of bio fertilizers in amaranth(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Niranjana, N S; KAU; Meerabai, MAn experiment was conducted at the Instruction farm attached to the College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during April - Sept 1996 with objectives of finding out the impact of biofertilizers Arospirillum , AMF and dual inoculation under varying and varied levels of fertilizer on amaranthus. Study also aimed to note the economics of the integrated approach and to identify the best economic combinations which improve yield and quality of amaranth varieties Arun and Kannara local. The study had three controls and two number of replications. The results of the study revealed that yield attributing characters like no: of harvests, yield harvest", marketable yield and dry weight were highest in plots applied with dual inoculation of Azospirillum and AMF with 75 per cent dose of p.op. Azospirillum with 50 per cent POP also gave good results. Both these treatments were on par and was better than our state recommendation. Growth characters viz: Seedling growth rate, plant height, number of leaves per plant, number of branches per plant, LAI were highest. for Azospirillum inoculation at early stages. While AMF inoculation gave notable results at later stages. Physiological parameters namely Biomass, NAR, Root dry weight were significantly improved with dual inoculation and higher dose of chemical fertilizer. Leaf dry weight, RGR and CGR responded most to inoculation with Azospirillum at early stages, while at later stage AMF performed well. Kannara local was superior to 148 Arun at early stages. But Arun performed superior to Kannara local with the progress of time. Stem dry weight was significantly influenced by application of AMF. Vermicompost gave high biomass till 45 DAT. Quality of amaranth improved when biofertilizer was given with higher dose of chemical fertilizer in almost all parameters discussed. Dual inoculation with 75 per cent POP gave maximum content of total mineral and moisture. Ascorbic acid content was highest for the treatment dual inoculation with 25 per cent POP. AMF with 75 per cent POP recorded high protein content, the same bioagent with 50 per cent POP gave lowest content of oxalates. Less fiber flush of amaranth w.as got from plots given Azospirillum + 75 per cent POP. Uptake of major nutrients namely Nand P was influenced by inoculation of Azospirillum along with higher dose of chemical and AMF with lower inorganics respectively. Major nutrient status in the soil after the experiment was more in case N,P,K for dual inoculation, Arospirillum and AMF respectively. Irrespective of biofertilizer higher dose of inorganic gave greater residual amount of nutrients. Dual inoculation with 75 per cent dose and Azospirillum along with 50 per cent dose gave maximum l?:C ratio and net returns. Vermicompost recorded minimum disease score. Lower levels of chemical fertilizers recorded less infection.ThesisItem Open Access Nutrient Status of the soil and plant as influenced by spacing and continued manuring in Coconut(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Pratheep, M S; KAU; Purushothaman Nair, NA study was conducted during 1995-96 at Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram of Kerala Agricultural University to asses the nutrient status of . the soil and plant in West Coast Tall coconuts planted at three different spacings and manured with three levels of macro nutrients. The treatments were three spacings (5 m x 5 m, 7.5 m x 7.5 m and 10 m x 10 m) and three fertilizer levels (control i.e., zero NPK, the lower level i.e., 340 g N + 225 g P205 + 450 g K20 per palm per year and the higher level i.e., 680 g N + 450 g P205 + 900 g K20 per palm per year). The basic experiment was started in 1964 and being continued. The data collected during the study (1995-96) was statistically analysed and the results are presented here under. Closer spacing increased height of palms. The spacings of7.5 m x 7.5 m was statistically superior since it gave the highest nut yield per palm per year. Manuring increased height of palms, girth and leaf production. At the highest level of NPK closer spacing of 5 m x 5 m could give the highest yield per unit area. Female flower production was higher under 7.5 m x 7.5 m spacing. Fertilizer application also increased flower production. Fruit setting was not influenced by palm density and fertilizer application significantly increased fruit setting. Number of nuts per bunch was higher at the spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m and progressively increased with manuring. The weight and volume of unhusked nut was the lowest at the closest spacing and in unfertilized palms. There was increase in weight of husk with increase in spacing. Similarly there was an increase in the ratio of weight of husk to unhusked nut with increasing spacing. Maximum thickness and weight of kernal was recorded at the spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m. Copra out turn was more at the spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5 m. In manured palms there was a higher copra out turn per hectare contributed by the higher yield. The oil content of copra was negatively correlated with per palm yield. Available NPK of soil decrease with wider spacing. The soil nutrient status increased with application of macronutrients and the accumulation of fertilizer was more in the upper layer of 0 to 25 cm. There was decline in NPK status with increase in depth. The Ca and Mg content of soil decreased with increase in spacing up to 7.5 m x 7.5 m. Both Ca and Mg content of soil decreased with increase in macro nutrient application. Ca content of soil decreased with increase in depth. However, the decrease of Mg content was seen only up to 50 cm depth. Available micro nutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn) decreased with increase in spacing and application of fertilizers. Available Fe, Cu and Mn content of soil decreased with increase in depth. Nand P content of leaf of coconut increased with wider spacing. However K content decreased with spacing. All the three macro nutrients increased with increase in fertilizer application. Ca and Mg content of leaf also increased with increase in spacing and fertilizer application. By fertilizer application Fe, Mn and Cu content of leaf increased whereas Zn and Na decreased.ThesisItem Open Access Yield maximisation of banana through organic and inorganic manuring(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Baiju, B R; KAU; Shahul Hameed, S M. An experiment was conducted at the Instructional farm attached to College of Agriculture, Vellayani during January 1995 to November 1995 with the objective of finding out the different sources of organic and inorganic nutrients for increasing the productivity of Nendran banana, the effect of post shooting application of urea and growth regulators on the bunch weight and to work out the benefit cost ratio by the integrated use of organic and inorganic fertilizers. Four levels of manures and three levels of post shooting treatments were tried in RBD with 3 replications. The results of the study revealed that application of poultry manure at the rate of five kg plant-1 increased total crop duration. Farm yard manure at the rate of 10 kg plant-1 and 2,4-D 10 ppm spray recorded maximum height at all stages. Bunch yield was maximum of (11.39 kg) with poultry manure at 5 kg plant-1, Highest bunch weight was recorded by 2,4-D 10 ppm spray and total number of fingers with urea 1 per cent spray. Among the ripe fruit characters, highest pulp / peel ratio was with poultry manure at the rate of five kg plant-1 even though higher finger weight, pulp weight and lower peel weight were recorded with poultry manure at the rate of five kg plant-1. Application of urea one per cent spray increased weight of finger. Among the quality attributes, higher values for TSS were noticed with level M1. Lowest value for acidity was observed for five kg poultry manure and tying urea 15 g. Total sugar was high with 10 kg farm yard manure and 2,4-D 10 ppm spray and non reducing sugar was high with level farm yard manure at 10 kg plant-1. Sugar-acid ratio was low for vermicompost at the rate of five kg plant-1. Sensory evaluation revealed that all treatments produced fruits with similar taste, flavour and colour. N content of index leaf showed significant variation at harvest with maximum value recorded with neem cake at the rate of five kg plant-1. P content of leaf was maximum with level neem cake five kg plant-1 and minimum with level farm yard manure 10 kg plant-1. The K content of leaf was maximum with neem cake level five kg plant-1 among manurial treatment. When the economics of production was worked out, it was observed that a combination of farm yard manure at 10 kg plant-1 and 2,4-D 10 ppm spray (M1P1) recorded the highest benefit cost ratio. The highest net profit of Rs. 1,49,045 was realised per hectare in farm yard manure at 10 kg plant-1 and 2,4-D 10 ppm spray. The present study revealed that application of poultry manure at five kg plant-1 and 2,4-D 10 ppm spray was beneficial for better growth, yield and quality of fruit in 'Nendran' banana.ThesisItem Open Access Integrated nutrient management in a Rice-Rice cropping system(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Deepa, S; KAU; Balachandran Nair, G KAn experiment entitled "Integrated nutrient management in a rice- rice cropping system" was condcuted at Cropping Systems Research Centre, Karamana during the second crop season of 1995-96, to study the effect of long term application of manures and fertilizers on the availability and uptake of nutrients and changes in the physico-chemical properties of the soil for sustained productivity. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with twelve sets of treatments and four replications. The twelve sets of treatments incldued four treatments of different levels of recommended fertilizers, treatments of integration of chemical fertilizers with organic sources like farm yard manure, crop residues (rice straw) and green manure, along with one each of unfertilized control and farmers practice of manuring. Organic manure addition in different forms was found to have pronounced effect on various growth and yield attributing characters of rice when applied in combination with chemical fertilizers. When compared to other treatments, application of 25 or 50 per cent of recommended N through farm yard manure in kharif followed by 75 or 100 per cent of recommended NPK through chemical fertilizers in rabi, gave higher tiller number, root production, productive tiller number, thousand grain weight, grain yield, and straw yield. Integration of organic manures with inorganic fertilizers improved the N, P and K uptake by the plant at all growth stages and at harvest. Highest Nand K uptake were recorded when 50 per cent N, supplied through farm yard manure in kharif season. Highest P uptake was recorded when 25 per cent of N supplied through crop residue in kharif. In general the available N,P,K and organic carbon contents of the soil were slightly improved due to combined application of organic and inorganic sources of fertilizers. Application of farm yard manure to meet 50 per cent of N along with 100 per cent recommended dose of fertilizers recorded maximum available NPK and organic carbon Bulk density was lowest under treatment receiving 50 per cent recommended N through farm yard manure in kharif. Incorporation of paddy straw, to meet 25 per cent N along with chemical fertilizers enhanced water holding capacity and cation exchange capacity of the soil.ThesisItem Open Access Development of diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in relation to yield and quality characteristics(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Sreekumaran, V; KAU; Neelakandan Potty, NAn investigative analysis was undertaken during 1993-96 to work out an objective and effective technology for nutritional management of black pepper based on cause and effect relationship. A critical and comparative evaluation of the available methods in this connection, viz. critical level concept, DRIS concept and management based on soil test data, soil analysis was envisaged. Approved standard procedures m estimating soil available and plant contents of nine elements, viz. N P K Ca Mg S Fe Zn and Mn and standard statistical methods were used in the study. A total of 1200 plants aged 14 years maintained at RARS, Ambalavayal were used as the test material in the study. A non-genic variability in yield ranging from 0.16 to 13.8 kg plant-1 was manifested by tile crop which indicated that variability shall be bridged upwards through managerial techniques. The range of available status of the elements in the soil analysis was very high. The lowest range of 0.9 to 4.5 ppm and the highest range of 144 to 1324 ppm were recorded by Zn and Ca, respectively. Soil pH ranged from 4.3 to 6.8. These were at the individual plant level. Foliar content as well as the range of the elements were much less and did not exactly related to soil available contents. Results also indicated that elements showed significant and specific interactions among themselves which varied with the elements. The pattern and magnitude of interactions at soil and plant level were different. Evaluation of soil test data of the study against approved soil test 0 - 9 scale classification showed that rhizosphere environments belonged to medium rich to very rich class and that it could not explain the yield variability and hence could not be a reliable basis of nutritional management in fertile soil. Examination of the foliar content of elements and their comparison with critical levels and ranges fixed by De Waard (1969) and Nybe (1986) respectively, showed that foliar content of all the elements in the study were above the critical levels which suggested that the critical level concept cannot be an adequate guiding principle in nutritional management of black pepper. It may be adequate only in situations where any element becomes specifically critical. Its inadequacy may also be due to the positive and negative interactions of elements in the plant system as well as due to the fact that yield is the resultant of a process involving several elements simultaneously. Negative relationship of P in the early stages and yield level of 6.5 and <1 kg berries at 2.33 and 2.35 per cent level and similar observations confirmed the above contention. DRIS concept was found to be more adaptable to explain the yield variability as it takes into account the content as well as interaction represented by ratios of every element with the others of the high yielding plants and tries to simulate them in low yielding plants. Results of the present study showed that by employing the DRIS concept and nutrient ratios, the content of every element can be identified at any time as absolutely deficient, relatively deficient, relatively sufficient, relatively excess and absolutely excess. This classification enabled to define the nature of recommendation as additive, deletive or ameliorative/corrective. Testing of the classification of the population into discriminative low and high - yielding sub-populations employing mean ± one SD showed that the system may be perfect when the magnitude of yield limiting factors in the entire range of low yield is the same. Possibility of variability in yield limiting factors could be accommodated by sub-dividing the lower yield group into smaller groups as was done in deciles in the study. The results appeared to show that the per plant variability can be accommodated with reasonable accuracy in such a system of micro level yield group identification and application of DRIS norms to them. The unique advantage of the DRIS system to reach the maximum realizable yield through progressive diagnosis based on progressive experimentation shall be substituted by the decile classification proposed in the study to a very good extent. Results of the present study showed that yield and quality factors are largely independent of each other and both can be improved by integrating the respective components even at the higher yield levels obtained in the present study. Analysis of inter-correlation matrix among elements at soil and plant level revealed the possibility of making specific recommendations to achieve progressive yield increases by working out quantity, intensity and rate of release characteristics. of elements in the soil in relation to absorption. Results in the present study showed that scientifically speaking the captions of DRIS indices or index values as " order of requirement" be modified as "order of limiting influences" - the former part of which is relative to metabolic deficiencies and the latter part to the metabolic excess. Imbalance indices have to be viewed as qualitative and not quantitative indices as they are relative, primarily based on the relative deficiencies and excesses which in turn are dependent upon the relative contents and valencies of the ions. The results of the study also revealed that with progressive increase in yield, causing .higher nutrient removal, will make the soil not only more deficient but also increase the frequency of application of nutrients more. The progressive increase in the number of limiting factors with yield improvement caused by higher rate of removal calls for more frequent monitoring and not treating the norm as static for a long period. The results of the experiment have brought to light a graded pattern of nutritional management for black pepper. The primary limiting factors were found to be high native content of Fe and Mn which will have to be ameliorated. Secondly, at the low yield level the yield is limited by a relative deficiency of Zn caused by high P calling for a temporary skipping of P; supplemented with N and K which can take the yield up to 5 kg plant-1. Excess S through the incidental application of prophylactic sprays of Bordeaux mixture and shortage of Ca and Mg appear to be the limiting factors at the higher yield class. Amelioration of acidity by supplying Ca + Mg carbonate, substitution of S containing fungicides and application of N and K shall constitute the recommendation, beyond which P may have to be applied.ThesisItem Open Access Developement of diagnosis and recommentation integrated system(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1998) Sreekumaran, V; KAU; Neelakandan, Potty NAn investigative analysis was undertaken during 1993-96 to work out an objective and effective technology for nutritional management of black pepper based on cause and effect relationship. A critical and comparative evaluation of the available methods in this connection, viz. critical level concept, DRIS concept and management based on soil test data, soil analysis was envisaged. Approved standard procedures m estimating soil available and plant contents of nine elements, viz. N P K Ca Mg S Fe Zn and Mn and standard statistical methods were used in the study. A total of 1200 plants aged 14 years maintained at RARS, Ambalavayal were used as the test material in the study. A non-genic variability in yield ranging from 0.16 to 13.8 kg plant-1 was manifested by tile crop which indicated that variability shall be bridged upwards through managerial techniques. The range of available status of the elements in the soil analysis was very high. The lowest range of 0.9 to 4.5 ppm and the highest range of 144 to 1324 ppm were recorded by Zn and Ca, respectively. Soil pH ranged from 4.3 to 6.8. These were at the individual plant level. Foliar content as well as the range of the elements were much less and did not exactly related to soil available contents. Results also indicated that elements showed significant and specific interactions among themselves which varied with the elements. The pattern and magnitude of interactions at soil and plant level were different. Evaluation of soil test data of the study against approved soil test 0 - 9 scale classification showed that rhizosphere environments belonged to medium rich to very rich class and that it could not explain the yield variability and hence could not be a reliable basis of nutritional management in fertile soil. Examination of the foliar content of elements and their comparison with critical levels and ranges fixed by De Waard (1969) and Nybe (1986) respectively, showed that foliar content of all the elements in the study were above the critical levels which suggested that the critical level concept cannot be an adequate guiding principle in nutritional management of black pepper. It may be adequate only in situations where any element becomes specifically critical. Its inadequacy may also be due to the positive and negative interactions of elements in the plant system as well as due to the fact that yield is the resultant of a process involving several elements simultaneously. Negative relationship of P in the early stages and yield level of 6.5 and <1 kg berries at 2.33 and 2.35 per cent level and similar observations confirmed the above contention. DRIS concept was found to be more adaptable to explain the yield variability as it takes into account the content as well as interaction represented by ratios of every element with the others of the high yielding plants and tries to simulate them in low yielding plants. Results of the present study showed that by employing the DRIS concept and nutrient ratios, the content of every element can be identified at any time as absolutely deficient, relatively deficient, relatively sufficient, relatively excess and absolutely excess. This classification enabled to define the nature of recommendation as additive, deletive or ameliorative/corrective. Testing of the classification of the population into discriminative low and high - yielding sub-populations employing mean ± one SD showed that the system may be perfect when the magnitude of yield limiting factors in the entire range of low yield is the same. Possibility of variability in yield limiting factors could be accommodated by sub-dividing the lower yield group into smaller groups as was done in deciles in the study. The results appeared to show that the per plant variability can be accommodated with reasonable accuracy in such a system of micro level yield group identification and application of DRIS norms to them. The unique advantage of the DRIS system to reach the maximum realizable yield through progressive diagnosis based on progressive experimentation shall be substituted by the decile classification proposed in the study to a very good extent. Results of the present study showed that yield and quality factors are largely independent of each other and both can be improved by integrating the respective components even at the higher yield levels obtained in the present study. Analysis of inter-correlation matrix among elements at soil and plant level revealed the possibility of making specific recommendations to achieve progressive yield increases by working out quantity, intensity and rate of release characteristics. of elements in the soil in relation to absorption. Results in the present study showed that scientifically speaking the captions of DRIS indices or index values as " order of requirement" be modified as "order of limiting influences" - the former part of which is relative to metabolic deficiencies and the latter part to the metabolic excess. Imbalance indices have to be viewed as qualitative and not quantitative indices as they are relative, primarily based on the relative deficiencies and excesses which in turn are dependent upon the relative contents and valencies of the ions. The results of the study also revealed that with progressive increase in yield, causing .higher nutrient removal, will make the soil not only more deficient but also increase the frequency of application of nutrients more. The progressive increase in the number of limiting factors with yield improvement caused by higher rate of removal calls for more frequent monitoring and not treating the norm as static for a long period. The results of the experiment have brought to light a graded pattern of nutritional management for black pepper. The primary limiting factors were found to be high native content of Fe and Mn which will have to be ameliorated. Secondly, at the low yield level the yield is limited by a relative deficiency of Zn caused by high P calling for a temporary skipping of P; supplemented with N and K which can take the yield up to 5 kg plant-1. Excess S through the incidental application of prophylactic sprays of Bordeaux mixture and shortage of Ca and Mg appear to be the limiting factors at the higher yield class. Amelioration of acidity by supplying Ca + Mg carbonate, substitution of S containing fungicides and application of N and K shall constitute the recommendation, beyond which P may have to be applied.ThesisItem Open Access Nutrient- growth regulator interaction in snakegourd (Trichosathes anguina L.) under drip irrigation system(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Elizabeth K, Syriak; KAU; Raghavan Pillai, GTwo field experiments were conducted at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, to study the effect of varying levels of nitrogen (n), ethephon (g) and drip irrigation frequency (i) on the productivity of snakegourd. The influence of the treatments on the size, quality and shelf life of the produce and also on the physico-chemical properties of soil was investigated. The trials were conducted during the summer seasons (December to April) of 1994-'95 and 1995-'96. The experiments were laid out in 4 2x2 + 2 asymmetrical confounded factorial design with two replications and each replication included two blocks. Combinations of four levels each of N (35, 70, 105 and 140 kg ha'), ethephon (0, 50, 100 and 200 ppm) and two frequencies of drip irrigation (5 mm CPE and 10 mm CPE) constituted the treatments along with two controls (nogoiI and llogoi2) in each block. The highest order interaction NOI was confounded in both the replications. Results of the field experiments revealed that during both the years of experimentation, nitrogen, ethephon and irrigation frequency exerted significant positive influence on the fruit yield of snakegourd. During both the years, the higher levels of nitrogen (105 and 140 kg N ha') were found to be significantly superior to the lower levels (70 and 35 kg N ha'). Pooled analysis of the yield data also revealed a similar trend. Growth characters like internodal length, number of leaves plant" and dry matter production showed significant enhancement due to N application. The positive significant effect of N was manifested in the yield attributes viz., number of fruits plant" and average fruit weight. Significant increase in the WUE of the crop due to N application was also observed. The content and uptake of major nutrients also increased substantially due to applied N. Nitrogen improved the quality of fruits, significantly, in terms of crude protein, total sugars, reducing sugars and ascorbic acid content. However, the shelf life was adversely affected by it. The highest net profit and B:C ratio were recorded by 105 kg N ha' (Rs. 74,636/- and 2.37, respectively) compared to the other levels of N. Considerable improvement in the physico-chemical properties of soil due to applied N was also noticed. The results of the field experiments also indicated significant yield . increase in snakegourd due to ethephon application. The higher levels of ethephon ie., 100 and 200 ppm, were found to be significantly superior to the lower levels in this regard. Growth and yield attributes as well as quality of fruits were favourably influenced by ethephon. Through its indirect positive effect on fruit yield, the higher levels of ethephon improved the WUE of the crop significantly over its lower levels. The economic analysis also revealed the positive effect of ethephon on the net profit and B:C ratio and the highest values were registered by 200 ppm ethephon (Rs. 71,194/- and 2.31, respectively). With respect to irrigation frequency, il (irrigation at 5 mm CPE) registered significantly higher fruit yield compared to i2 (irrigation at 10 mm CPE): Growth characters and also the quality of fruits exhibited a similar trend. More frequent irrigation treatment (i.) exerted its positive significant effect on yield attributes viz., number of fruits plant:' and mean weight and girth of fruits. The physical optima for N at il were worked out to be 100 and 115 kg ha" during the first and second year, respectively. Economic analysis also revealed the favourable effect of frequent drip irrigation, with il registering substantially higher net profit and B:C ratio (Rs. 70,038/- and 2.28, respectively) compared to i2 (Rs. 61,615/- and 2.14, respecti vel y) .. A perusal of the data on fruit yield and economics of the treatment combinations elicited the favourable effect of n3g4il which registered the highest fruit yield, net profit and RC ratio (31.06 t ha", Rs. 1,04,271/- and 3.04, respectively) and hence this combination could be adjudged as the best one for snakegourd cultivation.ThesisItem Open Access Agrotechniques in Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus [Linn] R. Br)(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellenikkara, 1998) Shina, K C; KAU; Lalitha Bai, E KInvestigations were undertaken at the Department of Agronomy) College of Horticulture) Vellanikkara, Trichur, Kerala during 1996 - '97 to standardise the agrotechniques in Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus [Linn] R. Br). The mam objectives of the study were to standardise the planting material in Hemidesmus indicus and to arrive at the optimum spacing for getting maximum yield. The study also aims to workout the optimum stage of harvest so as to get the highest yield of good quality. The salient findings of o the study are abstracted below. The nursery studies revealed that 5 cm long root cuttings planted vertically formed the best propagule in Hemidesmus indicus. Hence the experiment was carried out using 5 cm long root cuttings planted vertically. The application of FYM @ lOt ha" and high density planting at (10 x 10 cm) resulted in increased nutrient uptake and thus improved the growth and yield of Hemidesmus indicus. The oil yield) water and alcohol soluble extract obtained in this treatment was superior as compared to that with control plots with~ut any FYM application. The available N) P20S) K20 and organic carbon content of soil was more in heavily manured plots. The available N and P20S left in the soil was higher in widely spaced plots (20 x 20 cm) where as available K20 and organic carbon content more in dense planting of 10 x 10 cm. The different stages of harvest were compared with regard to their effect on growth and yield of hemidesmus. The nutrient uptake by the crop was highest in the eight month stage and hence this particular treatment resulted in the highest oil yield as compared to that in the other stages of harvest. Excepting available N, the nutrients left in the soil was found to be decreasing by eight month crop stage. The interaction effect of spacing x FYM and stages of harvest showed that the treatments receiving FYM @ lOt ha" and high density planting at 10 x 10 cm spacing when harvested at eight month stage, recorded the highest oil yield. Also this particular treatment recorded highest root yield, total returns and net returns as compared to the other treatment combinations.ThesisItem Open Access Integrated nutrient management for rice based cropping systems of Onattukara tract(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1998) Shalini Pillai, P; KAU; Muraleedharan Nair, VAn investigation was carried out at the Rice Research Station, Kayamkulam to identify the most suitable rice based cropping system for the Onattukkara tract and to evolve a suitable ecologically and economically viable integrated nutrient management practice for the system. The experiment was laid out in a 4x6 factorial strip plot design and was carried for two consecutive years extending from April, 1994 to May 1996. The treatments consisted of four cropping systems (rice-rice-sesamum, rice-rice-groundnut, rice-rice-cowpea and rice-rice-bhindi) and six nutrient management levels (N1 farmers' practice, N2 - Package of practices recommendations, N3 three-fourth recommended N as chemical + one-fourth as FYM, N4 - three-fourth recommended N as chemical + one-fourth as FYM + Azospirillum, N5 - three-fourth recommended N as chemical + one-eighth as FYM + one-eighth as vermicompost and N6 - three fourth recommended N as chemical + one - eighth as FYM + one - eighth as vermicompost + Azospirillum). During the third crop season the treatments N2 to N6 was package of practices recommendations (for the respective crops) while N1 was farmers' practice itself. Among the different nutrient management levels tested, the treatment wherein one-fourth recommended N was substituted with FYM and vermicompost along with Azospirillum recorded the maximum grain yield for first crop rice and second crop rice (irrespective of cropping system). The same treatment also supported a better straw yield by maintaining a favourable grain:straw ratio. In ricc-rice-'sesamum, the production efficiency was highp.st when one-fourth recommended nitrogen was supplied through farmyard manure and vermicompost along with Azospirillum. The BCR was maximum when the same treatment was applied without Azospirillum. In rice-rice-groundnut, rice- rice cowpea and rice-rice-bhindi, the same trend followed. Rice-rice-bhindi cropping system recorded the maximum production efficiency followed by rice-rice-groundnut during both the years, and rice-rice-sesamum recorded the minimum value. The overall mean returns was maximum with the cropping system,rice- rice-groundnut. It was followed closely by the rice-rice-bhindi cropping system. While rice-rice-cowpea recorded the meaning of economic returns during the first year, rice- rice sesamum recorded the same during the second year. Studies on the physico-chemical properties of the soil showed that the cropping system, rice-rice-sesamum resulted in a slight increase in bulk density, water holding capacity and water stable aggregates. The organic carbon, total nitrogen and available phosphorus content of the soil increased, while the soil pH, available nitrogen and available potassium contents decreased. The cropping system, rice-rice- groundnut resulted in an increase in bulk density, water holding capacity, water stable aggregates, organic carbon, soil pH, total nitrogen and available phosphorus and a decrease in the available nitrogen and available potassium contents. While there was an increase in the water holding capacity, water stable aggregates, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available nitrogen and available phosphorus there was a slight decrease in bulk density and soil pH in the cropping system, rice-rice- cowpea. The rice-rice-bhindi cropping system resulted in a decrease in the bulk density and soil pH and available potassium and an increase in the water holding capacity, water stable aggregates, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available nitrogen and available phosphorus. The balance sheet of nitrogen showed•a positive balance in the cropping systems rice-rice-groundnut and rice- rice-cowpea and a negative balance in the other two systems. All the cropping systems tested resulted in a negative balance for available phosphorus and a positive balance for available potassium. The cropping system, rice-rice-groundnut was observed to be the most efficient one. followed by rice-rice-bhindi based on the productive efficiency, benefit cost ratio and soil sustainability. The marginal benefit cost ratio for the different nutrient management practices showed that the treatment comprising three fourth recommended dose of N as chemical + one-eighth as FYM + one-eighth as vermicompost (for first and second crop rice) and package of practices 1ecommendations for groundnut (third crop) was the most economic. However, for the rice-rice-bhindi cropping system, the package of practices recommendations was observed to be more economical.
