Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively. Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively. On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs. In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc. During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU). Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.

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Open Access
Rationalisation of indigenous technical knowledge on pest management in the farm production systems of Palakkad District
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2003) Swapna, T R; KAU; Ahamed, P
The study on "Rationalisation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge on pest m.anagement in the farm production systems of Palakkad district" was conducted with the over-riding objective of compiling. and cataloguing the Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) including contemporary farmers' innovations in pest management in the major production systems, and analysing the evaluative perception and rationality of ITK items. The respondents of the study comprised of 150 farmers, 84 extensionists (including agricultural and veterinary departments) and 60 scientists, from agricultural and veterinary faculties. The study was conducted as a phased programme. The analysis of data elicited through Key Informant Workshops (KIW's) and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) sessions were subjected to various statistical analyses. The results of the study confirmed that farmers have rich knowledge on pest management developed by their ancestors and peers. The results established that the farmers did not perceive all the traditional practices as good or sound. They defended their opinions based on multi- faceted technology evaluation attributes and field realities. The ITK's screened through KIW's when subjected to the researchers and extensionists showed high difference of opinion, though some sort of similarity was also observed, when the ITK attributes were considered separately. On combined effect of perceived effect and scientific rationality of ITK items, similarity of opinion was observed in high potential and low potential ITK's as perceived by researchers and extensionists. The ITK's screened through Key Informant Workshops, when subjected to the researchers and extensionists, received differential perceptions in many cases and agreement on others. Besides these, there existed high correlation and significant relationship between the perceived effect and scientific rationality of each ITK as perceived by researchers and extensionists. Hence it could be concluded that majority of the ITK items with high perceived effect were perceived to have high scientific rationality also, though a few showed no relation at all. This indicated that perceived effect of an ITK is highly influenced by its scientific rationality and vice versa. While analysing the combined response of researchers and extensionists on the perceived effect and scientific rationality of ITK items, separately, majority of the items seemed to be non significant. This shows that both researchers and extensionists differed greatly in the perception of an ITK on its perceived utility. It could be further narrowed down that the attitude and viewpoints of researchers were different from the extensionists. The critical examination of the data analysed proved that there existed some sort of agreement in response pattern given by the farmers, researchers and extensionists. There were some ITK's which showed similarity in the response of high ranking and low ranking ones as given by all the three-respondents. At the same time a few ITK's clearly discriminated the perception of researchers and extensionists. This means that there were a few ITK's that discriminated the researchers and extensionists widely and a few others which exhibited agreement. Results of the study indicated the need for indepth assessment and validation of ITK's at laboratory and field levels through multidisciplinary approach, other than mere documentation and romanticization of all traditional knowledge without reasoning. While doing so, all the dimensions related to each specific technology must be worked out.
Open Access
Micro credit and technology utilisation in vegetable production by self help groups in Thiruvananthapuram district
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2003) Priya Devi, S; KAU; Bhaskaran, C
Kerala is depending upon other states for meeting its vegetable requirements though the soil types and climate are suitable for large scale and commercial cultivation. To meet the resource crunch among farmers a supplementing rural credit system to the existing ones is needed. This research study was an enquiry into the reported increase in area of vegetable cultivation and financial viability due to micro credit provision among beneficiaries of Self Help Groups of Vegetable and Fruit Promotion Council Keralam (YFPCK), Thiruvananthapuram project area. The respondents were 30 experts and 120 beneficiaries from twelve SHGs of five Panchayats of Thiruvananthapuram district. The data were collected using pre-tested and structured interview schedule and questionnaire prepared for the purpose. Micro credit utilisation and technology adoption levels in vegetable production by Self Help Groups were analysed. Also micro credit need and gap were ascertained and constraints and suggestions listed down. Based on group dynamics indicators it was inferred that the SHGs were functioning at medium level. Further inadequacies and future prospects are needed to be managed effectively. The SHGs had> 70 per cent attendance level in meetings, one meeting was arranged per month and had homogenous membership. The loan amount availed was between Rs.40,000 to Rs.80,000 with uniform interest rate. Group savings of Rs.SOO to Rs.ISOO was reported. Usually < 8 books of account are kept which are maintained by a group member. Members of group had trainings conducted based on their felt needs facilitated by field officers. XS Majority of the beneficiaries were in the 'high' category in respect or all vital profile characteristics like experience, innovativeness, social participation. training and increase in income after joining group activity. This is Cl positive effect of group formation. Also regarding technology adoption rate group characteristics were significantly related and individual characters were not significant. The credit need and credit gap was Rs.238 per cent of land. Regarding market behaviour, field centres were preferred to market the produce, bicycle or autorickshaws were mostly used for transport of produce. It was seen that 67 per cent of respondents got their money as ready cash at the time of sales and 80 per cent were satisfied with marketing support provided. Export potential must be more facilitated. Total cost of cultivation for one cent of panthal crop was reported as RS.S38 per cent. The credit utilisation was complete. All the respondents had repaid completely the loan amount and hence repayment was complete. Constraints faced in rmcro credit servicmg were absence of subsidy, indebtedness of beneficiaries and formal book keeping difficulties. The short term nature, allotment season and meeting time were reported as less relevant constraints. Constraints faced in timely repayment of micro credit were high labour cost, market glut leading to low cost of produce and wilful defaulters. Political influence was not rated as major constraint. Interest rates were low and overdues were not expected to be written off by beneficiaries. Perception of experts was high about regular field visits by experts, experience sharing and compulsion by group pressure in repayment and utilisation of loan amount. Also monitoring and recording of adopted technologies which were not perceived as risky was enabled by micro credit. Perception of beneficiaries about micro credit was high with respect to benefit of more renewal chances, easy repayment installments, absence of collateral security, reduction in cost of borrowing and ensuring participatory approach. Also reduction in time spent, making farming profitable, experts visiting fields, convenient interest levels and satisfactory amount supplied was enabled by micro credit. Suggestions of beneficiaries and experts for improving micro credit supply relates to role of banks, government support and sustained group action. In the case of defaulters, bank intervention must be more easily and strict to avoid possible revenue recovery and smooth group functioning. Regarding improvement in repayment and sustained group action, more incentives must be provided. Government support in the form of subsidy, insurance and reduction in lease amount are needed.
Open Access
Entrepreurial behaviour of coconut oil-based unit owners
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Horticulture,Vellayani, 2007) Gurubalan, M; KAU; Seema, B
The study entitled “ Entrepreneurial behaviour of coconut oil based units owners” was undertaken with an objective to analyse the entrepreneurial behaviour of coconut oil based units, their profile characteristics and economic dimensions of enterprise. It was also aimed to identify the constraints as perceived by the entrepreneur so as to provide valuable suggestions for the development of the enterprise. The study was conducted in Pallichal, Pulimath, Parasala block Panchayats in Thiruvananthapuram district. A sample of 25 copra units and 10 coconut oil mills from each Panchayat were selected at random thus making a total of 105 respondents. The data collected were statistically analyzed using arithmetic mean, percentage and simple correlation. The study revealed that majority of the respondents from both categories had medium to high level of entrepreneurial behaviour. Relationship of the profile characteristics with entrepreneurial behaviour showed that in the case of copra unit owners, variables namely education, annual income, mass media exposure, attitude towards self employment, economic motivation and knowledge about value added products were positively and significantly correlated. In case of coconut oil mill owners, education, mass media exposure, level of aspiration, attitude towards self employment, economic motivation, self reliance and knowledge about value added products had positively significant correlation with the entrepreneurial behaviour. Economic analysis of enterprises showed that profitability and sound economic position in both the categories of respondents. Shortage of raw materials, instability of prices, high labour charges, and lack of infrastructure facilities were considered to be major hindrances encountered by copra unit owners. Whereas in coconut oil mill owners, shortage of raw materials, instability of prices, competition from low priced oils and lack of organized marketing were perceived as major constraints. Current information on prices coupled with ware housing facilities. Market literacy programme, vertical integration of coconut oil based units and initiation of new processing technologies were the major suggestions for the development of coconut oil based industry.
Open Access
Forecasting technical manpower needs in agriculture in Kerala
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2004) Suja, S L; KAU; Sherief, A K
The study entitled "Forecasting technical manpower needs in agriculture in Kerala" was undertaken to forecast the technical manpower demand and supply in agriculture for a decade in Kerala. It was also aimed to study the characteristics of the existing employment pattern of technical manpower. Its aim also included to identify the constraints faced by the technical manpower in getting gainful employment in agriculture. The study was conducted in identified organizations in Kerala state. A sample of 150 agriculture graduates who were working in different sectors of agricultural development in the state were selected for studying the characteristics of existing employment pattern in the state. The study developed after having discussion with the officials and subject matter specialists. Well structured and pre-tested interview schedule was used for data collection. For forecasting the technical manpower demand in the next decade, data regarding the employment pattern during the last five years and at present were collected from the government sector, industrial and corporate sector, research and academic sector, banking sector, non- governmental organizations and others. Then the trend of variation in the employment pattern was analysed. Based on this trend future technical manpower requirement in different sectors was worked out by regression analysis, For technical manpower supply forecasting agricultural students enrolled in Kerala Agricultural University from 1995 - 2002 were collected. In this study based on the data it \\';\'S assumed that 25 per cent of the students were coming from outside Kerala. The study revealed that most of the respondents were working in identified organizations whose functional area IS' research and development. Most of the respondents were postgraduates and they receive monthly salary for the service or work rendered by them in the identified organizations. The study revealed that in the government sector there will be a decrease in the demand for the technical manpower in the next decade even though number of vacancies will rise due to retirement of the employees. The factors affecting future technical manpower demand in the identified organizations were emerging technological development, impact of GATT and WTO agreement and government policies related to agriculture, industry and economy, competition between different enterprises in the agricultural field, opening new areas of employment, higher salary expectation of employees and improved mechanisms for rural credit. As per the study the estimated annual outturn of agricultural graduates from 2004 to 2010 will be 177. As per the study the technical manpower demand - supply gap analysis revealed that the present level of potential unemployment in the state is about 53.33 per ce~t. The cumulative potential unemployment is 313. Among the constraints listed out, narrow focus on unemployment mismatching of education with jobs, delay in updating the curriculum and lack of adequate practical exposure in starting and running enterprises were considered to be the major constraints felt by the agricultural graduates in getting gainful employment in agriculture.
Open Access
Rationalisation of idigenous technical knowledge on production management in the farm production systems of Palakkad district
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2003) Rajesh, P; KAU; Kaleel, F M H
Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) was recognized as a possible key to low external input sustainable agriculture that contributes both to sustainable agricultural production for the farmers, as well as a source of knowledge that can add on to the existing science based knowledge of the researchers. Identifying, documenting and incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into agricultural extension organizations were essential to achieve sustainable agricultural development. Keeping in VIew the objectives of the study and the perusal of available literature shows that most of the attributes included in the study were expost facto in nature and in expost facto studies the chance for manipulation by the researcher is very less. The study was conducted in Palakkad district. A multi stage sampling procedure was followed for selection of samples for the study. Out of the 13 developmental blocks five were selected based on the criteria of highest agricultural predominance and presence of at least three production systems out of five envisaged in the study namely rice based, homestead based mixed farming system, plantation including spices, seasonal crops and annual crops. One of the blocks was selected to represent one agro eco zone. Four panchayats were selected within each block based on the same criteria of highest agricultural predominance and presence of at least three production systems out of five. Thus 20 panchayats were included for the study. The objectives of the study necessitated the involvement of three types of respondents viz.,farmers, extension personnel and scientists. These three groups were referred as Farmers Sub System (FSS), Extension Sub System (ESS) and Research Sub System (RSS) respectively. There were 34 ITK practices in coconut, which were agreed as good practices by FSS and ESS and supported by RSS with rationalization. These practices were documented. In ginger six ITK practices were documented after evaluation by FSS and ESS and rationalization by scientists. In pepper five ITK practices were documented after evaluation by farmers and extension personnel and rationalization by scientists. Similar work can be done in other districts of Kerala so that a comprehensive ITK package can be developed. It was a must because almost all ITKs were location specific. Those ITKs, which were rated as good by the FSS, ESS and RSS, can be blended with modern technology and can be fed back to the farmers. The ITKs, which were not rationalized by the scientists but considered as good by the farmers, can be selected for further study. The correct dosage and other details like time of application and method of application can be developed for each ITK so that it will become more specific. Those ITKs, which were fool proof, can be included in the package of practices for the corresponding production systems.
Open Access
Study of rubber producer`s society of Thrissur district- sap analysis
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2004) Jayanta, Roy; KAU; Geethakutty, P S
Rubber in Kerala is no longer a crop grown only in large plantations; it is , now gaining importance as a homestead crop also. The Rubber Board have setup the field level rubber growers' co-operative institution - the Rubber Producers' Society " (RPS) for providing infrastructural and technological support services needed by the small farmers. The present study entitled "A Study of Rubber Producer's Society of Thrissur District - SAP analysis" was aimed to analyse the structural and functional dimensions of RPS using Situation-Actor-Process (SAP) analysis, to analyse the shift in role perceptions and role performance of RPS in the present scenario, to analyse the managerial roles as employed by the RPS for the production and marketing of quality rubber production and to analyse the constraints in the functioning of RPS. Data were collected from a sample of 60 office bearers and 150 grower members identified at random from ten well functioning and ten poor functioning RPS of Thrissur District. The data on analysis revealed that majority of the RPS in Thrissur district were observed to be in the category of average performance. The experience of the RPS, membership strength, rate of growth in membership, extent of gender balance among the participants, maintenance of accounts, service area of the RPS, services of marketing, information and processing provided to the members, innovative programmes taken up, formation of SHG and community biogas plant were observed to be important contributing factors in the effectiveness of RPS. All the RPS were claiming good linkage with Rubber Board through field officials. It was observed that , , RPS officials were giving least importance to the major expected roles of creating awareness on grade based marketing, value addition, initiating Self Help Groups (SHGs) for women enabling community processing activities and industries. Negative correlation is found between the role expectation by the grower members about RPS and role performance by the RPS. Majority of the RPS officials keep good attitude towards the RPS. But a very low percentage of the grower members keep favourable attitude as majority of them were with neutral attitude only towards RPS. The major problems experienced by the office bearers in the implementation of RPS were - lack of co-operation on the part of grower members, lack of interest on the part of grower members, lack of working. capital, non adoption of new technologies etc while problems experienced by the RPS grower members were lack of training and technical knowledge, lack of physical facilities, lack of remunerative .prices, non co-operation among members, poor leadership of the RPS office bearers, lack of timely assistance and input supply, poor functioning and services of RPS, poor credit faci lities etc. The lapse on the part of the RPS office bearers and growers as 'Actors' witli role clarity of the situation are well pronounced here. The office bearers should be made aware of the 'goals' and vision of the RPS and the resultant role expectations and mission of the various stakeholders of the situation. Capacity building among the office bearers for effective leadership and management is of crucial importance. Efforts for initialization of the RPS should be there through focus on status, industries and participatory leadership.
Open Access
Organic agricultural practices in coconut based homesteads in Thiruvananthapuram district
(Department Of Agricultural Extension, College Of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2007) Jayawardana, J K J P; KAU; Sherief, A K
The study entitled “Organic agricultural practices in coconut based homesteads in Thiruvananthapuram district” was conducted to assess the awareness, knowledge, attitude and adoption of organic farming practices, to find out the relationship between the profile characteristics and awareness, knowledge, attitude and adoption of organic farming practices and to identify the constraints in the adoption of organic farming practices and to suggest solutions to them. The study was conducted in Kalliyoor, Venganoor and Kuzhimilum Panchayats of Nemon, Adiyanoor and Chirayinkeezh blocks respectively of Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala. Multi stage random sampling technique was administered to select 105 coconut based homestead growers from the study area at 35 per block. An explorative methodology was employed to identify the organic farming practices for the study. Twenty organic farming practices based on judges relevancy rating were finally selected. Eleven independent variables were selected based on judges’ relevancy rating which included age, experience in coconut cultivation, education, livestock possession, training attended, risk orientation, self confidence, innovativeness, market perception, environmental orientation and information seeking behaviour. All these variables were quantified with the help of available measurement procedures. The dependent variables selected for the study were awareness, knowledge, attitude and adoption. These variables were also quantified using available measurement devices. The relationship between the dependent variables and independent variables was studied using correlation analysis. Constraints in the adoption of organic farming practices were also recorded as perceived by the coconut based homestead farmers. The data were collected using a pre-tested structured interview schedule prepared for the study and non-participant observation technique by the researcher. The statistical tools like mean, percentage analysis, and correlation analysis were used to analyse the data. The salient findings are presented below. Majority of the coconut based homestead farmers (80%) belonged to old age category. Most of the coconut based homestead farmers had (42%) primary school education. Thirty eight per cent of the respondents were having more than 25 years of experience in coconut cultivation. Nearly three fourth of the respondents had medium level of livestock possession. Ninety two per cent of the respondents had not attended any training programme followed by seven per cent undergone only one training. Majority of the respondents (66%) had medium level of risk orientation. Almost three fourth (71%) of the coconut based homestead farmers had medium level of self confidence. More than half of the respondents (69%) had medium innovativeness. Sixty two per cent of the respondents had medium level of market perception. More than three fourth of the respondents (83%) had medium level of environmental orientation. Nearly half of the respondents (51%) had medium level of information seeking behaviour. Majority of the respondents (73%) had medium level of awareness, sixty eight per cent of the respondents had medium level of knowledge, majority of the respondents (70%) had a favourable attitude and most of the respondents (60%) belonged to medium level of adoption followed by low level (26%). Majority of the respondents (65%) applied inorganic fertilizer for coconut and 29 per cent of the respondents applied neither organic nor inorganic. Only six per cent applied organic fertilizer for coconut. Awareness about organic farming practices showed significant and positive relationship with education, innovativeness, risk orientation, market perception, self confidence and information seeking behaviour. Seven variables, namely education, innovativeness, risk orientation, market perception, self confidence, information seeking behaviour and awareness showed a significant and positive relationship with knowledge about organic farming practices. Attitude towards organic farming practices showed significant and positive relationship with education, livestock possession, innovativeness, risk orientation, market perception, self confidence, information seeking behaviour, awareness and knowledge. Adoption of organic farming practices was found to have significant and positive relationship with nine variables, namely, education, innovativeness, risk orientation, market perception, self confidence, information seeking behaviour, awareness, knowledge and attitude of coconut based homestead farmers. The most important constraint perceived by the coconut based homestead farmers was the high cost of inputs. The other important constraints were high labour charge, lack of ready package for homestead coconut farming, non availability of organic inputs, non availability of climbers, lack of subsidies and credit facilities and inadequate information about organic farming practices. Organic agriculture in coconut based homestead is a practicable and viable technique, because coconut palm itself produces huge amount of biomass within the system for recycling. It strengthens the natural resource recycling, enhances soil fertility and sustains biological production. The effort from research, extension and supply of input through government sector especially through Coconut Development Board, finding and development of international market for organic coconut and value added products, tender nut production as natural beverage are needed to facilitate successful adoption of organic farming practices by coconut growers. Hence long term and short term development plans on organic farming in coconut cultivation should be the need of hour to increase the productivity of coconut and save this “Kalpavruksha” for future generation.
Open Access
Agricultural labour in rice based farming system:gender based multidimensional analysis
(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2006) Prasidha, P R; KAU; Anilkumar, A
The study entitled “Agricultural labour in rice based farming system: A gender based multidimensional analysis” was undertaken to study the female and male labour participation in the major operations of rice based farming system, their employment pattern and profile characteristics. It also aims to study the influence of labour organizations among agricultural labourers, the constraints experienced by the female and male agricultural labourers and their attitude towards improved farm practices. The study was conducted at Kunnathukal panchayat and Karode panchayat in Thiruvananthapuram district. A list of agricultural labourers in the two selected panchayats was prepared. From each panchayat 40 male and 40 female labourers were selected randomly. Thus totally 160 labourers were selected as the respondents of the study. The data were collected using a pre-tested and well-structured interview schedule. The study indicated that agricultural labourers in rice based farming system constituted mainly of old age people. Almost 90 percent of the respondents don’t possess land for own cultivation. Extension agency contact was almost nil for landless labourers. Kerala State Karshaka Thozhilai Union (KSKTU) was the only labour union functioning in the location. The study revealed that regarding gender roles, exclusively females performed transplanting in rice. None of the female labourers were employed for banana cultivation. Operations like land preparation, plant protection measures, fertilizer application and transport of harvested produce were operations segregated absolutely for male respondents. Men never perform picking and women never perform sowing in case of rice fallow pulse cultivation. Only males were employed as hired wage labour dairy sector, provided paid on a monthly basis. The maximum extent of labour participation of females was in the order of rice, vegetables and pulses and among males it was rice, banana, vegetables and pulses. The total number of employment days obtained by male respondents in a year was 112 days (67 days of agricultural labour + 35 days of non-agricultural labour). The total number of employment days obtained by female respondents in a year was 68 days (51days of agricultural labour + 17 days of non-agricultural labour). Men received more days of agriculture labour in the months of October and November and more days of non-agriculture labour during April. Women received more days of employment in agriculture during June. They experience slack of employment in non-agricultural sector during the months of Febrauary, May, June, July, August, September and October. In the case of rice farming male and female labourers performed 23 and 33 labour days respectively. Male labourers obtained 22 labour days of work in banana cultivation. In the case of vegetable cultivation male and female labourers performed 20 and 13 labour days of work respectively. Male and female respondents respectively received 2 and 5 labour days of work regarding pulse farming. The agricultural operation, which consumed maximum time, was transplanting in rice (10 hrs) followed by rice harvesting and staking in banana (8hrs). The non-agricultural operation that consumed maximum time was roadwork (9hrs). The total wage received by male labourers in a year was Rs.13862 ((Rs.8354 from agricultural labour + Rs.5508 from non-agricultural labour). The total wage received by female respondents was Rs.7795. (Rs.5748 from agricultural labour + Rs.2047 from non-agricultural labour). Wage discrimination was not much prominent in agricultural sector, whereas non-agricultural sector witnessed absolute wage discrimination between genders. In general, the constraints encountered by the agricultural labourers were reduced employment opportunities within agricultural sector, conversion of rice farming land for commercial crops cultivation and other non-agricultural purposes, and pressure to shift in non-agricultural sector. Seasonality of labour and drudgery prone tasks were the constraints experienced exclusively by the female labourers
Open Access
Empowerment of vegetable farmers through market - led extension
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2007) Shinogi, K C; KAU; Jayashree, Krishnankutty
The word empowerment can not be contained in its dictionary meaning itself. This word has been ostensibly used without knowing what its weight is. The present study examined the empowerment of vegetable farmers in four dimensions viz., social empowerment, personal empowerment, technological empowerment and economic empowerment through market-led extension activities. Sixty vegetable farmers, participating in self-help groups from two districts and sixty vegetable farmers from the same districts, doing vegetable cultivation with out any self-help group participation took part in the study. The result highlights the fact that the self-help group of respondents had empowerment at the four dimensions and thus ensured the total empowerment. Socio-economic variables viz., educational status of the farmer, family income, land owned, leased land under vegetable cultivation and farmer’s experience in vegetable cultivation also proved their relation to the empowerment level through the study. It was found that personal empowerment had a role in enhancing social participation and social recognition that led to social empowerment and technological empowerment through the increased use of information sources. These changes in people equipped them to add more and more amount to their income and economic empowerment had happened. The empowerment threshold was calculated by correlating two variables such as social participation and personal empowerment. The maximum equal score of personal empowerment that could be attained by the SHG and non-SHG group of respondents who were having the same level of social participation was fixed as the threshold value of empowerment.

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur

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