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Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
The history of agricultural education in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1896 when a scheme was evolved in the erstwhile Travancore State to train a few young men in scientific agriculture at the Demonstration Farm, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram, presently, the Cropping Systems Research Centre under Kerala Agricultural University. Agriculture was introduced as an optional subject in the middle school classes in the State in 1922 when an Agricultural Middle School was started at Aluva, Ernakulam District. The popularity and usefulness of this school led to the starting of similar institutions at Kottarakkara and Konni in 1928 and 1931 respectively.
Agriculture was later introduced as an optional subject for Intermediate Course in 1953. In 1955, the erstwhile Government of Travancore-Cochin started the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences at Mannuthy, Thrissur for imparting higher education in agricultural and veterinary sciences, respectively. These institutions were brought under the direct administrative control of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Animal Husbandry, respectively. With the formation of Kerala State in 1956, these two colleges were affiliated to the University of Kerala. The post-graduate programmes leading to M.Sc. (Ag), M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees were started in 1961, 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On the recommendation of the Second National Education Commission (1964-66) headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman of the University Grants Commission, one Agricultural University in each State was established. The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) were established in India as an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System to give the much needed impetus to Agriculture Education and Research in the Country. As a result the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) was established on 24th February 1971 by virtue of the Act 33 of 1971 and started functioning on 1st February 1972. The Kerala Agricultural University is the 15th in the series of the SAUs.
In accordance with the provisions of KAU Act of 1971, the Agricultural College and Research Institute at Vellayani, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, were brought under the Kerala Agricultural University. In addition, twenty one agricultural and animal husbandry research stations were also transferred to the KAU for taking up research and extension programmes on various crops, animals, birds, etc.
During 2011, Kerala Agricultural University was trifurcated into Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (KVASU), Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) and Kerala Agricultural University (KAU).
Now the University has seven colleges (four Agriculture, one Agricultural Engineering, one Forestry, one Co-operation Banking & Management), six RARSs, seven KVKs, 15 Research Stations and 16 Research and Extension Units under the faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Forestry. In addition, one Academy on Climate Change Adaptation and one Institute of Agricultural Technology offering M.Sc. (Integrated) Climate Change Adaptation and Diploma in Agricultural Sciences respectively are also functioning in Kerala Agricultural University.
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ThesisItem Open Access Impact of prominent KAU rice varities on the economic status of farmers in Kerala and Karnataka(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Dhruthiraj, B S; KAU; Chitra ParayilThe present study entitled “Impact of prominent KAU rice varieties on the economic status of farmers in Kerala and Karnataka” was conducted with the objectives of working out the costs and returns of prominent rice varieties, Jyothi and Uma, released from KAU, to find out the relationship between varietal adoption and net farm income, to identify specific reasons for adoption of KAU varieties and to analyze profitability of the KAU varieties in the states of Kerala and Karnataka by comparing with with local non-KAU varieties cultivated by farmers. The survey was conducted by collecting both primary data and secondary data. The area of study were major rice growing districts of Kerala (Palakkad and Alappuzha) and Karnataka (Mysore and Mandya). These districts were selected on the basis of prominence in adoption of rice varieties released from KAU. The primary data were collected by means of pre-tested interview schedule. The farmers in the study area were categorized into two groups on the basis of variety grown as: KAU variety adopting farmers and local popular non KAU variety adopting farmers. Forty farmers each cultivating at least one acre and adopting KAU variety and 40 farmers cultivating a local popular non-KAU variety were randomly selected and surveyed in each state making a total sample size of 160. The cost-return structure was worked out both for KAU and non KAU variety production using cost concepts. The average cost of cultivation (Cost C2) of KAU varieties was found to be lesser in Palakkad (Rs.73,213 per hectare) compared to Karnataka (Rs.75,731 per hectare ) and Alappuzha (Rs. 81,915 per hectare) and in case of local non KAU varieties, the average cost of cultivation was Rs.83,981 per hectare, Rs.83,634 per hectare and Rs.94,526 per hectare in Karnataka, Palakkad and Alappuzha respectively. The net income obtained by cultivating KAU varieties was found to be higher in Palakkad (Rs.48, 143 per hectare), followed by Alappuzha (26,356 per hectare) and Karnataka (Rs.11, 746 per hectare. The benefit – cost ratio (BCR) at the C2 and explicit cost level was found to be positive for KAU varieties in both the states. This implies that cultivation of KAU varieties was profitable for farmers in both the states. Garrett ranking technique was used to determine the reasons for adoption of KAU varieties. The possible reasons for adoption of KAU varieties in Karnataka were identified as high market price, high yield potential, high tillering capacity and resistance to pests and diseases while in Kerala, Farmers highlighted high yield potential, high market price, high tillering capacity, suitability, to the location, consumption purpose, resistance to pests and diseases and short duration of the variety as major reasons for adoption. Probit model was used to find out the factors affecting adoption of KAU rice varieties. In Kerala, Organizational membership and gross income of the farmers while in Karnataka, education, organizational membership, area and gross income of the farmers were identified as the major factors affecting the adoption of KAU varieties. The average cost of cultivation (cost C2) for seed production of KAU varieties was found to be higher in Karnataka (Rs. 88,176 per hectare), compared to Kerala (Rs.86, 355 per hectare). The average gross income was found to be higher in Kerala (Rs.1, 56,223 per hectare) compared to Karnataka (Rs.1, 17,513 per hectare). The net income at cost C2 was found to be positive for both the states whereas the amount was found to be higher in Kerala was compared to Karnataka. The marketing channels identified Kerala were Channel 1: Farmer- Supplyco - Rice millers - Public distribution system (PDS) – Consumers, Channel 2: Farmer - Rice millers – Retailers- Consumers and Channel 3: Farmer- Middlemen- Rice milers - Retailers - Consumers. The marketing channels identified in Karnataka were Channel 1: Farmer – Rice milers- Kerala marketing channels identified in Karnataka were Channel 1: Farmer - Rice millers- Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Local trader - Retailer -Consumer, Channel 2: Farmer - Local trader – Kerala rice market- Rice millers -Retailer - Consumer, Channel 3: Farmer - Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Rice millers/Local agents – Retailers - Consumers, Channel 4: Farmer - APMC -middlemen -Kerala rice market - Wholesaler/Rice millers/Local agents - Retailers - Consumer. For both KAU and non KAU rice varieties, labour cost accounted for highest share in the cost A1 components in both the states; therefore, efforts have to be made for mechanizing paddy cultivation. Also initiatives have to be taken to attract the younger generation towards agriculture and more importantly paddy cultivation.ThesisItem Open Access Groundwater irrigation: management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Seenath Peedikakandi; KAU; Indira Devi, PGroundwater is the major source of domestic use and irrigation in Kerala, accounting for 39 per cent of net irrigated area. Irrigated agriculture in the state shows continuous increase over years. At the same time Kerala is reported as third among the states with highest depletion of groundwater. This situation poses challenges in agricultural production. The study ‘Groundwater irrigation: Management, adaptation and economic costs under declining resource conditions’ was undertaken, in this background. The objectives of the study were to analyse the extent of decline in groundwater resources and farmers’ understanding of the same, to analyse the extraction practices, management and economic efficiency of groundwater irrigation and coping (short term) and adaptation (long term) strategies towards management of groundwater decline and the economic cost of adaptation strategies. The study was conducted in Palakkad district of Kerala. Based on the stage of ground water development, three Block Panchayats viz., Chittur (over exploited), Malampuzha (critical) and Pattambi (semi-critical) were selected for the study. 50 Open Well (OW) irrigated and 50 Bore Well (BW) irrigated farms from each BP were randomly selected from the Grama Panchayats (GPs) where observational wells of the GWD (Ground Water Department- Kerala) are situated. Primary data was collected from the sample farms through field visits using pre-tested structured interview schedule and through direct observation. PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) was also conducted in each BP to draw the time line of changes in ground water status and social perceptions. Secondary data on monthly water levels of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (GMWs) maintained by GWD (Palakkad),rainfall data and published reports were used for the study. Statistical tools like descriptive analysis, regression and Stochastic Frontier Function were employed for analysis of the data. In most of the GMWs in the study area, the Water Level from Ground (WLG) has been declining over the years. The trend was more predominant during early summer (Dec.–Jan.) in Chittur and Malampuzha and in late summer in Pattambi BP. Regression analysis showed that WLG was significantly influenced by one year lagged rainfall in Chittur and current year rainfall in Malampuzha and Pattambi. The average well density was 205/km2 with highest in Pattambi. Density of defunct wells was highest (45/km2) and the average functional age of bore wells was lowest (7 years) in Chittur. The depth of well was highest in Chittur where bore well depth (136 mbgl- meters below ground level) was double than that of Pattambi. Coconut based cropping system was prevalent in most of the farms except in Malampuzha where paddy was the major crop. Flood, basin and sprinkler irrigations were found to be more common in Malampuzha and Pattambi BPs, while drip irrigation was prevalent in Chittur. Cost of irrigation in Chittur was about Rs. 29,000/ha/year which accounted for 37 per cent of cost of cultivation. Annual net return per ha. of farm was lowest (Rs. 17,640/-) in Chittur due to low cropping intensity. Stochastic Frontier Analysis indicated that mean economic efficiency was high (99.9%) in Chittur as most of the farms were functioning along the cost frontier. The variability among the farms in Chittur was low. Respondents opined that groundwater is declining over the years irrespective of the region. It has been so, for more than a decade in Chittur affecting socio-economic well-being of farmers. They attributed intensive extraction through bore wells and low rainfall as the major reasons for the decline. Farm level adaptations to water scarcity are classified under ‘supply management’ (methods that facilitated increase in quantity of water available for irrigation) and ‘demand management’ (methods that tried to use the water effectively through minimizing the use) strategies. The supply management strategies were mainly exploitative in nature which included digging new bore well (52-58%), improved draft technology with compressor pumps (58%), taking pits for water conservation (7%), coconut husk burial (12%), coconut leaf mulching (18%) and dependence on water markets (8%). Digging new bore well was the most common supply management strategy in Chittur which is highly capital intensive. The average cost amounted to Rs. 8,520/ha/year. Intensive extraction was done by excessive use of subsidized electricity. Adoption of drip irrigation (60%) was the most widely practiced demand management strategy which cost about Rs. 22,000/ha/year. Cropping pattern change from paddy and sugarcane to coconut was also observed. About 18 per cent of the land area in Chittur was kept fallow due to water scarcity. The study brings out results that suggest policy interventions in regulating bore well digging and revisiting the power subsidy system. In Chittur area, where the rainfall is scanty, extension of the Right Bank Canal of the Chittur River irrigation project is the most feasible solution. Taking up on-farm research trials in the area to suggest efficient farming systems and practices may also be done. Simultaneously water resource conservation strategies are to be popularized through awareness creation, capacity building programmes and subsidy support.ThesisItem Open Access Economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Hema, M; KAU; Indira Devi, P.Mangroves are invaluable treasure o f our biodiversity with immense ecological and economic significance. But mangroves wealth of the world is depleting at an annual rate of -0. 34 per cent. Mangroves in Kerala, constitute 0.3 per cent o f that in India, is reported to be high in species diversity. The available reports indicate the depleting status o f the ecosystem in Kerala too. The socio-economic and ecological significance o f this ecosystem is to be studied in detail for assisting policy decisions when confronted with the conservation-development debate. This study was undertaken in this background. The study identified the stakeholders o f mangrove ecosystems o f Kerala and quantified the level o f dependence o f local communities for their livelihood and estimated the aggregate demand for products and services. Further, it identified and quantified the relative influence o f socioeconomic, institutional, climatic and anthropogenic forces on the destruction of mangroves and finally assessed the Total Economic Value (TEV) o f mangrove system and suggested policy prescriptions for the conservation and management of mangroves in Kerala. The study was conducted in the mangrove areas o f Emakulam and Kannur districts of Kerala. These two districts accounted for nearly 65 per cent o f the mangroves o f the state. The study was based on primary and secondary data. The primary data was gathered from 480 respondents belonging to four identified stakeholder groups (residents, fishermen, paddy farmers and general public), selected through simple random sampling method. Data was collected through personal interview using structured pretested interview schedule along with direct observation. The major tools of data analysis were Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Choice experiment. The data collection was conducted during June 2012 to January 2013. I Four stakeholder groups o f the mangrove ecosystem in the study area were residents living close to mangroves (<1 km from mangroves), fishermen (inland fishermen and women, engaged in shell mining and clam collection, shrimp farmers), paddy farmers (Pokkali and Kaippad) and general public (resides away from the mangroves). The residents were depending on the mangroves for extraction o f fuel wood, fodder and poles. On an average the level o f extraction was 307 kg o f fuel wood, 1024 kg of fodder and 14(no.) o f poles per year valued at X 4628/household. This amounted to 3 per cent o f their annual household income. The major species o f fish catch by the fishermen were Etroplus, shrimp, crab and Tilapia which was quantified at 1553 kg/ year valued at X 1,41,045. Shell mining which was found to be a major economic activity in Kannur region could generate an income of X 30,000/annum through the extraction and sale o f 7500 kg o f shells. Clam collected was quantified at 225 kg/year valued at X 5625. Thus, the average gross income from these activities was estimated at X 1,77,164 per year which was the main source o f income for the household. About 8 per cent of the fishermen were involved in shrimp farming and were mainly from Kannur district. The size o f the farm varied from 0.4 to 2 ha. The input cost/ha was X 2.8 lakhs which includes cost o f seed, feed, lime and water management. Labour cost was estimated at X 77,000. Hence total cost and returns o f shrimp farming/ha was X 3.27 and 4.75 lakhs respectively with net income o f ? 1.48 lakhs. Pokkali and Kaippad agricultural systems are proved to be closely interconnected with the:.mangrove ecosystem and the per hectare gross returns was X 60,007 and X 40,935 respectively. This amounted to average 30 per cent o f their household income. The respondents’ perception on the pattern of change and the major factors that effected the change in mangrove ecosystem was studied based on their responses. 46 per cent o f the respondents were o f the opinion that the mangrove ecosystem has declined over years and facing threat. The major factors responsible for the same were reported as anthropogenic, climatic forces and status o f property rights. The 11 developmental interventions like LNG Petronet Terminal, Puthuvypeen and ICTT Vallarpadam has resulted in large scale conversion o f mangrove areas. The contradictory forces o f development and conservation led to destruction of mangrove ecosystem. One fifth respondents opined that climatic factors were responsible for the decline. Nearly 85 per cent of the mangroves in the state were reported to be under private ownership and rest under public. The property right status along with economic status influences the rate o f depletion. The legal interventions and community and institutional efforts also influence the status of mangroves, most often positively. The economic valuation of ecological benefits o f mangroves was attempted employing the Contingent Valuation Method. The respondents expressed their willingness to contribute towards conservation both in cash and kind (cash payment and manual participation as labour and as volunteer in awareness programmes) and in combination. The average WTP expressed by the respondents was f 2308/annum the range being ? 50-28,870. The TEV of the mangrove ecosystem of the state was thus ? 1,17,947 million, which was 0.14 per cent ofthe GSDP (2011-12). A socially preferred management plan was identified among a set of alternatives, employing the choice experiment method. Among the management options given, the stakeholders preferred community management (41.6%) followed by public management (29.2%) and status quo (21.4%). The community management of the mangrove ecosystem provides opportunity for the local community to participate in management decision process. At the same time, the importance o f public funding for such activities is revealed in the analysis. The study suggests initiating scientific attempts on realistic area estimation and mapping o f the mangrove resources in the state. There should be attempts to identify and classify the species and document the traditional wisdom associated with them. Region specific studies are needed to establish and quantify the extent of association between mangrove ecosystem and the livelihood activities of local communities. The TEV justifies the increased resources allocation for the conservation efforts. Further, the implementation of community management system as institutional form for mangrove management in the state is suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Price behaviour of natural rubber in India.(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2011) Reeja, Varghese; KAU; Satheesh Babu, KNatural rubber, a product of vital commercial importance is recovered from the latex of the rubber tree, Hevea braziliensis. The present study entitled “Price behaviour of natural rubber in India” was conducted during 2010-11 based on the secondary data. The changes in area, production and productivity status of natural rubber in the world, India and Kerala were studied using the index numbers and compound growth rates. The compound growth rates in area, production and productivity of natural rubber in India were below the global growth rates, while that of Kerala was above the national level. India is emerging as the second largest consumer of natural rubber in the world. Consumption status of natural rubber in India showed that there is a growing deficit between domestic production and consumption of natural rubber in India. India was not a regular exporter of natural rubber, and therefore considerable fluctuations were observed in the export status depending on the domestic production level. The deficit in demand was met by imports. The import of natural rubber by Indian automobile industries grew annually by 12.37 per cent during the study period. The secular, seasonal, cyclical and irregular variations in rubber prices were studied using the techniques of classical decomposition of time series analysis. The trend in rubber prices in the domestic market at Kottayam and international market at Bangkok were captured by the single exponential smoothing model satisfactorily. The analysis showed that the RSS-4 prices in the Bangkok as well as the Kottayam markets were stagnant from January 1995 to April 2001, after which the prices showed an upward trend. The rubber prices were subjected to considerable seasonal variations due to the seasonality in production. In the international market, the peak price was observed in June and the trough price during the month of July, whereas in Kottayam market, the peak price was observed during May and the lowest price in the month of February. The rubber prices in the international as well as domestic markets were not subjected to pronounced price cycles. There were considerable irregular variations in rubber prices in both the markets. The rubber prices exhibited considerable instability in both the markets. Out of the different price forecasting models used to develop a reliable price forecasting model, the artificial neural network (ANN) model was found to be more reliable for predicting the price of RSS-4 in Kottayam market. However, no model could capture the underlying dynamics of rubber prices in the international market at Bangkok satisfactorily. The export competitiveness of Indian natural rubber was measured using nominal protection coefficient (NPC) under exportable hypothesis. It was found that Indian natural rubber was not export competitive during the study period. The market integration studies showed that Kottayam and Bangkok markets were integrated and there was a unidirectional influence of Bangkok market on the prices of natural rubber in Kottayam market, while the influence of Kottayam market on Bangkok market could not be established. The policy interventions suggested based on the study include efforts to increase the area under natural rubber in the non traditional rubber growing areas like North Eastern states, evolving technologies for enhancing the productivity of natural rubber in India to increase the income of farmers per unit cultivated area, improved tapping techniques to extend the tapping days, and to develop a multivariate price forecasting model. A reliable, regional market intelligence system for the natural rubber growers in the country to provide timely and reliable market information and intelligence is also suggested.ThesisItem Open Access Supply chain analysis of marine fish marketing system in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Jeyanthi, P; KAU; Jesy Thomas, KFisheries is a major allied sector of agriculture contributing about 0.8 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5.15 per cent to agricultural GDP in India. Marine fisheries supports around 10 million people providing livelihood and employment directly or indirectly. Fish also provides more than one billion people living below the poverty line with most of their daily animal protein requirement globally. Kerala is a state known for its fish consumption which is more than four times the national average. However, the marine domestic fish marketing system faces several challenges in the process of distributing fish from the producer to the consumer. The study was conducted in Kerala state, which is the fourth largest fish producer in the country, and covered coastal and land locked (non-coastal) regions. The objectives of the study were to identify the supply chain of selected fish species, to assess the structure and performance of domestic fish markets, to examine the market integration and price transmission among the markets and to assess the consumer perception and suggest policy guidelines for improved fish marketing in Kerala. Two coastal districts viz., Ernakulam (E) and Kollam (K) and two land locked districts, Idukki (I) and Pathanamthitta (P) were selected and data was collected using simple random sampling from various marketing functionaries (producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers). Since the species composition of marine fish landings is varied, the study focused on four high value (seer fish, shrimp, pomfret and tuna) and four low value but commonly consumed fish species (sardine, mackerel, anchovies, threadfin bream). Supply chain of the selected fish species was identified using the framework of Feller et al, 2006. Market performance of producers, wholesalers and retailers were assessed using Data Envelopment Analysis. The co-integration test was used to analyses the market integration of selected market pairs. Conjoint analysis was used to determine the attributes responsible for their fish purchasing behaviour. The constraints faced by the market functionaries were ranked using Rank Based Quotient. The generic supply chain of fish identified involved the auctioneer, wholesaler, retailers, secondary retailers, between the producer and the consumer. This is almost similar to the supply chain of other perishable like fruits, vegetables and flowers. The supply chain for sardine, tuna and thread fin bream also involved extra nodes in their supply chain due to industry specific demands like feed and other specialized products. The market structure of domestic fish markets was not efficient. The main reason being lack of infrastructure such as cold storage, well planned display and assemblage platforms, potable water and weighing balance. Market performance of producers was measured at the five landing centres in Ernakulam and Kollam and it was observed that only one market was efficient in each of the districts. It was revealed that the nature of inefficiency was due to scale rather than technology. In both Ernakulam and Kollam, only one wholesale market each was efficient and all other markets showed high technical efficiency i.e., above 0.80. In both wholesale and retail markets, the technical efficiency was relatively low in Idukki and Pathanamthitta with it being least in Idukki. It was revealed that the markets in the coastal regions showed relatively high technical efficiency than the land locked regions because of the higher volumes handled in the markets due to proximity with the landing centres, viz, the primary production centres, which is not so easily accessible to the land locked districts. Among wholesale markets, one market pair in Ernakulam, one in Idukki and one in Pathanamthitta showed co-integration and among retail one each in Ernkulam and Pathanamthitta showed co-integration. This indicates that in these markets there is a possibility of long run equilibrium in prices. The existence of low short run market integration (SRMI) at both wholesale as well as retail market levels was observed among the co-integrated market pairs. Consumer preference was for fresh fish in all the four districts studied in cleaned and cut form from retailers, wholesalers or wholesaler-cum-retailer. Sardine was the most preferred species in both coastal and landlocked regions of Kerala with more than 75 and 72 per cent of respondents, respectively, consuming it daily. The relative importance of attributes that consumer in Ernakulam and Kollam looked at while purchasing fish was fish species in fresh form and income. In Idukki and Pathanamthitta, availability and income were the relatively important attributes. Based on the pooled response of market functionaries in the selected districts the domination of middlemen was the major constraint for producers, wholesalers and retailers. Safety and quality of fish was the major constraint of consumers. The studies on efficiency of fish supply chain in line with the changing consumer preference are the future line of work towards sustainable fisheries development.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of rice milling industry in central Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2018) Athira, B; KAU; Chitra ParayilRice milling is the oldest and the largest agro processing industry of the country. At present it has a turnover of more than Rs. 25,500/- crore per annum. It processes about 85 million tonnes of paddy per year and provides staple food grain and other valuable products required by over 60 per cent of the population. As demand for food grain increases with the growth of population, the need for efficient paddy processing units is felt in the country. Main challenges encountered by the rice processors are to find appropriate solutions for quality rice processing and meeting the demand of current population growth rate. This work provides the basic information about the economics of rice mills in Kerala, factors affecting the milling efficiency and also will study the stakeholder responses (farmers, traders, and millers) on the rice milling industry. The study was based on both Primary and secondary data. The primary was collected from stakeholders in milling industry in Palakkad and Ernakulam districts of Kerala. This includes millers, farmers and traders of Palakkad and Ernakulum districts. Data was collected from 40 mills (20 from each district), farmers and traders. The year 2016-17 is considered as the year of reference. Capital investment pattern of rice mills in Palakkad and Ernakulam districts were calculated and analysed. The results showed that from 1980 to 2017 investment on rice mills had increased from Rs. 30 lakh to 300 lakh. Capitallabour ratio of 40 rice mills were also calculated and showed an inverse relation between the ratio and capacity of rice mills. Low capital- labour ratio indicated a higher profitability and employment generation in rice mills. Response of the rice millers to the processing industry was analyzed. Millers purchase paddy from farmers in weekly, monthly seasonally and irregular time intervals. Major varieties preferred by the rice millers were Uma, Jaya, Jyothi and TK-9. They mainly procure the paddy varieties from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka farmers compared to the farmers in Palakkad and Alappuzha districts due to the low price. Milling, polishing, supply to the exporters, local trading and by product trading are the major processing activities in rice mills. Major buyers of rice from the rice mills were Traders, consumers, restaurants and public agencies with varying number. Efficiency analysis of rice mills was done using three tools such as percentage analysis, financial ratio and Data Envelopment Technique. Capacity utilization of rice mills were calculated using percentage analysis and found to be higher for large capacity rice mills followed by medium and small capacity rice mills. Financial ratios used were B:C ratio, Gross margin and Operating expense ratio and proved that all the rice mills in Palakkad and Ernakulam were running on a profitable basis. Data envelopment analysis showed the efficiency of rice mills with a mean technical efficiency of 0.95 in Palakkad and 0.96 in Ernakulam. Mean scale efficiency value of 0.91 and 0.93 was obtained from Palakkad and Ernakulam districts respectively. Peer count and input targets of both districts were also obtained from DEA analysis. Major constraints in the rice milling industry were identified using Garret ranking technique. Maintenance cost, labour shortage and irregularity in paddy supply were the main three hindrances to the smooth functioning of rice mills. With the increase in demand for processed rice in India and Kerala there is great need to improve the quality of rice and installed capacity of processingThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of production, marketing and prices of arecanut in Kasargod district of Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2018) Janeesa, K P; KAU; Anil KuruvilaArecanut is an important plantation crop grown in India, mainly by the small and marginal farmers. India is one among the leading producers of arecanut with an area of 4.55 lakh hectares and a production of 7.25 lakh tonnes in 2016-17. The study entitled “Economic analysis of production, marketing and prices of arecanut in Kasaragod district of Kerala” was conducted with the objectives of analysing the time series properties and formation of prices, estimating the economics and efficiency of arecanut production, identifying the marketing channels and the price spread in different channels and finding out the major constraints in production and marketing of arecanut in Kasaragod district of Kerala. The study was based on both primary and secondary data. The study was conducted in Kasaragod district, which has the largest area under arecanut cultivation in Kerala. Primary data was collected from 100 farmers, randomly selected from two blocks in the district. The data was also collected from 20 market intermediaries including wholesalers, retailers and Central Arecanut Marketing and Processing Co-operative Society (CAMPCO). Trend analysis revealed that area, production and productivity of arecanut in India exhibited increasing trend during the period from 1980-81 to 2015-16. Time series data on area, production and productivity of arecanut in Kerala over the years from 1980-81 to 2015-16 showed an increasing trend with regular ups and downs. Export and import of arecanut have also shown an increasing trend, both in quantity and value terms. The price behavior of ripe and dry arecanut in major markets of Kerala viz., Nedumangad, Telicherry, Kanhangad and Kozhikode were analyzed by decomposing the monthly prices into four components viz., trend, seasonal, cyclical and irregular variations, assuming a multiplicative model of time series. The prices of arecanut showed increasing trend in these markets. While analysing the seasonal variation, it was noticed that arecanut prices showed considerable seasonality. The increasing phase for ripe arecanut prices was observed from March to May, while for dry arecanut, the highest price was observed during April, May and November in Nedumangad, Calicut and Kanhangad markets respectively. Co-integration analysis of arecanut prices in the above markets revealed that the markets were cointegrated. Since arecanut is a perennial crop, its yielding phase was assumed to be 50 years, with a non-bearing phase of five years. The costs and returns were estimated by accounting the establishment and maintenance costs separately. The establishment cost was found to be ₹3,43,386 per hectare and the annual maintenance costs were ₹ 2,13,075, ₹ 2,06,925 and ₹1,58,608 per hectare in yield increasing, yield stabilising and yield declining phases respectively. The cost of cultivation per hectare of the crop was estimated as ₹ 2.67 lakh, while the net return was ₹ 1.30 lakh. It was found that human labour contributed 75 per cent of the total cost of cultivation. The average cost of production in the yielding phase was estimated as ₹ 150 per kg. To evaluate the resource use efficiency in arecanut cultivation, Cobb-Douglas production function was fitted. Plant protection chemicals and human labour were found to be significantly contributing towards the yield. The elastic coefficient for women labour charges was -0.13 indicating that the increase in expenditure on labour by one percent from the mean level. Moreover, a decreasing returns to scale in arecanut production was observed in the study area. The most common marketing channel identified in the study area was channel I (Producer- village trader- wholesaler- retailer- consumers). Even though marketing efficiency was highest in channel III (Producer- CAMPCO- retailers - consumers), farmers preferred channel I over channel III because of the immediate payment. Marketing costs were found to be ₹ 33.9, ₹ 29.44 and ₹ 28.44 per kg in channel I, II and channel III respectively. The highest price spread of ₹ 58.9 per kg was estimated in channel I, while it was lowest (44.94 per kg) in Channel III. Various constraints in production and marketing of arecanut were identified and ranked using Garret’s ranking technique. Among the various constraints faced by farmers in production, scarcity of skilled labour for harvesting and spraying, water scarcity, occurrence of pests and diseases were the major ones. Price fluctuation was the foremost constraint faced in marketing of arecanut. In order to tackle these constraints, mechanization of operations, value addition through product diversification, promoting the use of warehousing facilities and warehouse receipts as negotiable instruments for getting credit and strengthening market intelligence were recommended for ensuring better and stable prices for farmers.ThesisItem Open Access Assessment and management of risk at farmer's level in rice and banana cultivation(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2018) Anjana Vijayan; KAU; Indira Devi, PAgriculture and allied sectors provide livelihood to nearly 40 per cent of the rural population in the state. But, the household income from agriculture is very low and is reported to be fluctuating. The study entitled “Assessment and management of risk at farmer’s level in rice and banana cultivation” was conducted with the objectives of analyzing the spatial and temporal dimensions of risk in agricultural income realization in Kerala and studying the economic cost of risk management strategies adopted by the farmers and the factors influencing it. The study was conducted based on primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from rice and banana farmers in Thrissur district following Multistage Random Sampling method. Puzhakkal and Anthikkad were the two selected BPs under paddy and Kodakara and Chalakudy were the two selected BPs under banana. Ten farmers each were randomly selected from two GPs of each BP making a total sample size of 80 (40 each rice and banana farmers).The secondary data on agricultural income in Kerala was gathered for a period of 15 years (1999-00 to 2015-16) and was analyzed to assess the instability. Agricultural income was 9.94 per cent of the GDP of the state (2015-16) and it showed an increasing trend at current prices recording a growth rate of 10.6 per cent (1999-00 to 2015-16). However the real income showed declining trend recording a negative growth rate of 0.82 reflecting the welfare loss to farm households. The agricultural income being a function of prices and output, an attempt to analyse the price trend of agricultural commodities was made by looking at the index of prices received and price paid by the farmers. The prices paid by them were at a higher level than price received and the gap was observed to be getting widened though they were both showing an increasing trend. The index of agricultural production of prominent crops of Kerala including food crops and non-food crops (1999-00 to 2015-16) halved from 107.85 (1999-00) to 49.30 over these years, highlighting the severe set-back in agricultural production. To quantify the changes in agricultural income during the period, and to understand the performance of districts, the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) was estimated at the state level and district level. The growth rate of the state income was estimated as 10.6 per cent at current prices and -0.8 per cent at constant prices during the year 1999-00 to 2015-16. The growth rate in current prices was obviously high due to the price factors and its inflationary trends. All the districts in Kerala showed positive growth in agricultural income at current prices but it recorded a negative growth at constant prices except in the case of a few districts. Highest positive growth rate was observed in Palakkad (12.6 per cent) followed by Idukki (11.7 per cent) and Kasargod (11.6 per cent). At constant prices, majority of the districts showed negative growth rate except Palakkad, Kasargod and Kottayam, in that order. The level of agricultural risk was measured through the estimation of instability index which was found to be 0.086 at current prices and 0.067 at constant prices. Alappuzha (0.225), Wayanad (0.210) and Kasargod (0.288) were the high risk districts and Thiruvanathapuram (0.068) and Ernakulam (0.082) were in the low risk ones. Palakkad, Idukki and Kottayam are the agriculturally most important districts in terms of contribution to state agricultural income (2015-16) while Idukki, Kottayam and Malappuram in that order were the ones that showed consistent high share over a span of 15 years. Sample based field studies showed that rice farmers are facing a number of constraints, viz., production, finance, marketing and institutional factors. The production ranged from 5719kg/ha to 4181kg/ha and price Rs.22.50 to Rs.7/kg. Most of them depended on institutional sources of credit. Institutional risk on account of delayed procurement/payment of produce and the problems associated with DBT system were also highlighted. Statistical analysis identified expenditure on machines and fertilizers and age of the farmer as favouring the production while higher expenditure on fertilizers and plant protection chemicals increased the risk. Higher levels of labour involvement and larger holdings are found to be less risky. Generally, aged and experienced farmers were found to be opting for crop insurance protection. More cultivated area also influenced rice farmer’s decision to subscribe to crop insurance On analyzing the risk in banana cultivation, the production ranged between 22330kg/ha to 14342kg/ha and price Rs.50/kg to Rs.15/kg. Majority of the respondents depended on borrowed capital source from institutional agencies. Statistical analysis identified size of land holding, human labour involvement and expenditure on manures as the factors that favoured banana production while higher human labour involvement and better education of the farmer reduced the risk. Education, years of experience and land holding size are the factors that influenced the banana farmers decision to adopt crop insurance as a risk management tool. The findings highlight the need for a microlevel analytical study to identify the reasons for unstable income in the agriculturally important regions of the state. There should be special risk management tools designed for the risky regions. The constraints with respect to payment for the procured produce and the subsidy delivery needs to focused and efforts to address the same needs to be initiated. The study underlines the need for regulating the use of chemical inputs as it increases the risk, though adds to the rice output. The production and price risk factors in banana cultivation are to be properly addressed through the activities of institutions like VFPCK. There is a need for sensitizing the young farmers on crop insurance.ThesisItem Open Access Performance analysis of kisan credit card scheme in Thiruvananthapuram district(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2018) Kshama, A V; KAU; Santha, A MThe research entitled ‘Performance analysis of Kisan Credit Card in Thiruvananathapuram district’ was conducted with the objectives of examining the progress and performance of Kisan Credit Card at macro and micro level and to identify the constraints faced by beneficiaries. The secondary data were collected regarding the number of cards issued and the amount sanctioned at all India level and Kerala state level from various government institutions and banking publications for a period of 10 years. Primary data were collected from Parassala panchayat of Neyyattinkara taluk. The information was collected from 30 KCC beneficiaries and 30 non-beneficiaries randomly selected from the major commercial and co-operative banks of the locality. Thus the total sample size was 60. For the number of cards issued, Kerala recorded a lower Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) than all India which was 3.03 and 13.74 per cent per annum respectively. Whereas for the amount sanctioned the performance of Kerala state was better (22 per cent per annum) compared to all India (18 per cent per annum). The amount per card sanctioned by the banking sector showed a growth rate at of 19 per cent and 4 per cent per annum for Kerala and India state respectively which indicates a tendency of credit deepening in Kerala rather than credit widening. Binary logit regression was done to know the socio economic variables influencing the respondents of the scheme. Analysis showed that cropping pattern and eductaion of the respondents were found to have positive influence indicating, a respondent who is following a particular cropping pattern is 1.3 times more likely to join KCC when compared to the once who are not following any cropping pattern. Similarly in case of education, education the odds ratio was found to be 1.61 indicating that as the education level of the respondents increases then they are 1.61 times more likely to join the scheme rather than the respondents who have not done any formal schooling. The total cost of cultivation was estimated using ABC Cost concept, considering both fixed and variable costs. The most profitable crop was banana, followed by yard long bean, cucumber, tapioca and amaranthus and the B:C ratios were 1.10, 1.06, 1.03, 1.03 and 1.02 respectively at Cost C. From the results of regression analysis it was evident that the coefficient of determination had values ranging from 0.68-0.80 indicating 68-80 per cent of the variation in the gross returns was due to the independent variables under consideration. It was found that 50 per cent of the respondents joined the scheme during 2009-13 and 40 per cent joined during 2006-09. About 50 per cent of respondents obtained information from Krishi Bhavan followed by 33 per cent from banks as a source and 13 per cent from Horticorp. The average amount applied for the loan was ₹60,666.66 and it was more in case of beneficiaries of SBI (₹69,333) than co-operative bank (₹52,000). The average number of renewal of the accounts was found to be 5.73 times. While considering repayment, 73 and 86 per cent of the beneficiaries of SBI and Co-operatives respectively were able to repay the loan amount completely. The average amount of loan sanctioned was more for beneficiaries of SBI but the repayment was better for the loanees of co-operative bank. Scale of finance was compared with Cost A2 and Cost C for the various crops. Invariably for all crops the credit was adequate while considering paid out costs (Cost A2). At Cost C, credit was found adequate for all crops except tapioca. The total cost of credit was found to be higher for beneficiaries of Co-operative bank (7.4 per cent) compared to beneficiaries of SBI (7.2 per cent). It was evident from the ordinary least square estimates that cost of cultivation and loan requirement for non-farming operations were influencing the credit requirement of the respondents positively. The major constraints as perceived by the beneficiaries were with respect to procedural formalities which include time delay and formalities for obtaining the land records from village office and multiple visits to the bank for the sanction. Moreover the credit limit under the scheme was not considering the consumption needs and also respondents found difficulty in annual renewal of the KCC account. The amount per card issued in Kerala state was low when compared to all India level eventhough the growth rate was more which warrants for expansion of credit for agricultural development. The beneficiaries of KCC were able to purchase better quantity and quality of inputs thereby leading to higher profitability from various crops. The inputs were found to be over utilized, which shows that the respondents can increase their income by rational use of inputs. In the opinion of respondents, the consumption needs are more prominent than production credit and if family size is considered as criteria for fixing consumption credit limit the KCC scheme would be more attractive. The linking of KCC with storage and warehousing facility and marketing agencies would avoid indebtedness of farming community.
