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Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar
After independence, development of the rural sector was considered the primary concern of the Government of India. In 1949, with the appointment of the Radhakrishnan University Education Commission, imparting of agricultural education through the setting up of rural universities became the focal point. Later, in 1954 an Indo-American team led by Dr. K.R. Damle, the Vice-President of ICAR, was constituted that arrived at the idea of establishing a Rural University on the land-grant pattern of USA. As a consequence a contract between the Government of India, the Technical Cooperation Mission and some land-grant universities of USA, was signed to promote agricultural education in the country. The US universities included the universities of Tennessee, the Ohio State University, the Kansas State University, The University of Illinois, the Pennsylvania State University and the University of Missouri. The task of assisting Uttar Pradesh in establishing an agricultural university was assigned to the University of Illinois which signed a contract in 1959 to establish an agricultural University in the State. Dean, H.W. Hannah, of the University of Illinois prepared a blueprint for a Rural University to be set up at the Tarai State Farm in the district Nainital, UP. In the initial stage the University of Illinois also offered the services of its scientists and teachers. Thus, in 1960, the first agricultural university of India, UP Agricultural University, came into being by an Act of legislation, UP Act XI-V of 1958. The Act was later amended under UP Universities Re-enactment and Amendment Act 1972 and the University was rechristened as Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology keeping in view the contributions of Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant, the then Chief Minister of UP. The University was dedicated to the Nation by the first Prime Minister of India Pt Jawaharlal Nehru on 17 November 1960.
The G.B. Pant University is a symbol of successful partnership between India and the United States. The establishment of this university brought about a revolution in agricultural education, research and extension. It paved the way for setting up of 31 other agricultural universities in the country.
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ThesisItem Open Access Immunopathological effects of kitazin, an organophosphorous pesticide in broilers(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2009-05) Kohila, P.; Thathoo, A.K.The present experiment was carried out to assess the acute and sub acute toxic effects of Kitazin, an organophosphorous pesticide in broiler chicken. To assess the acute toxic effects of Kitazin, a total of 48 day old broiler chicks were randomly divided in four groups of 12 birds each. After one week of acclimatization period, a single oral dose of Kitazin was administered @ 300mg, 600mg and 900 mg/ Kg body weight to group 2 (T1), group 3 (T2) and group 4 (T3) respectively. To assess the sub acute toxic effects of Kitazin, a total of 48 day old broiler chicks were randomly divided in four groups of 12 birds each. After one week of acclimatization period, Kitazin was incorporated in the feed @ 100 ppm, 200 ppm and 400 ppm to group 2 (T1), group 3 (T2) and group 4 (T3) respectively for a period of 6 weeks. In both the studies the group 1 birds served as control (C). Blood and serum samples were collected once in a week in acute toxicity study, and once in two weeks interval in sub acute toxicity study to assess the haematological and biochemical parameters respectively. In acute study, the birds were sacrificed at the end of 14th and 21st day of age, to study the pathomorphology of organs. In subacute study, the birds were sacrificed on 49th day of age. Acute toxicity of Kitazin produced typical neurological signs such as ataxia, in coordination, drooping of wings, tremors, convulsions and death. The average body weights of experimental birds measured at once in 14 days interval revealed a significant decrease in Kitazin treated birds in both acute and sub acute toxicity study. Effects of Kitazin on the haematological parameters were significantly decreased haemoglobin, PCV and TEC values in both acute and sub acute toxicity study. A significant decrease in TLC, lymphocyte count, MCV and MCH values were also observed. The results of the biochemical studies had a significant increase in serum glucose, total cholesterol, SGOT and creatinine values in both the studies. A significant increase in SGPT and BUN values were observed in sub acute toxicity study. The levels of total proteins, albumin, globulin and A/G ratio were significantly decreased in both the studies. Results of Lymphocyte Stimulation Test (LST) showed a significant decrease in mean delta OD values of both Con-A and LPS stimulated lymphocyte cultures from treatment groups in comparison to control group.A significant reduction in the organ/body weight ratio was observed for liver, spleen and bursa in both the studies. Grossly, congestion of all organs was noticed. Histopathological examination of liver showed hyperemia, mononuclear cell inifiltration and hepatocytes undergoing various stages of degeneration. Kidney showed glomerular nephritis, nephrosis and haemorrhages. Desquamation of bronchial epithelium, edema, emphysema and congestion were observed in the lungs. Degenerative and necrotic changes were observed in the spleen and bursa. The lesions in the brain were congestion, perivascular cuffing, chromatolysis, neuronophagia and extensive spongiform changes. From the findings of the present study, it may be concluded that, Kitazin has adverse effects on the general health, body weight and immune status of the birds and these effects are dependent on its dose and duration of exposure.ThesisItem Open Access A study on some characteristics of Lochia collected from crossbred cows(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2009-07) Suresh Kumar, N.; Singh, D.V.The study was conducted from October, 2008 to March, 2009 at Pantnagar on lochia (post-partum uterine secretion) collected from ten crossbred cows. The objective was to study physical, biochemical and microbial nature of lochia. On an average 21.3±1.7 ml of lochia could be collected from the cows. The colour of lochia was reddish brown, due to the autolysis and liquefaction of most superficial layers of uterine epithelium. The consistency of lochia was medium and slightly thicker than water and blood. The mean pH and electrical conductivity of lochia were 6.63±0.06 and 3.79 ± 0.64 ms/m, respectively. Typical fern pattern of cervical mucus of estrus was not observed with lochia. The mean glucose, urea nitrogen, albumin, globulin, total protein, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chloride concentrations of lochia samples were19.97±1.77 mg/dl, 30.99±3.33 mg/dl, 2.30 ± 0.09 g/dl, 4.69±0.14 g/dl, 7.00±0.20 g/dl, 11.26±0.46 mg/dl, 0.38±0.02 mg/dl, 116.50±4.96 mEq/l, 5.46±0.34 mEq/l, and 98.86±3.66 mEq/l, respectively. The glucose concentration in lochia samples was higher than that of uterine luminal fluid but lower than that of blood serum. Urea nitrogen content of lochia was higher than that of normal blood serum level. Protein concentrations in lochia samples were within normal range of blood serum. The calcium content in lochia was more than that of post-partum uterine fluid and blood serum level. Potassium and serum were within normal range of blood serum. The mean bacterial load of lochia was (4.53±0.48) x 103/ml, and significantly lower than lochia collected during uterine infections. Above findings indicate that lochia may be considered as uterine secretory product. Further analysis of lochia may reveal some specific constituents in it which may have role in improving fertility.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on morphological and performance traits of feathered shank local hill fowl(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2009-06) Sharma, Naresh Chand; Singh, S.K.The present study was conducted to evaluate the morphological and performance traits of feathered shank local hill fowl.” The average body weight at day old, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 weeks of age were 30.84±0.18, 43.81±0.23, 51.83±0.29, 84.27±0.60,107.11±0.52, 185.60±0.70, 251.03±0.82, 373.56±1.62, 513.99±1.71, 585.01±2.21, 737.49±3.83, 879.35±4.81, 965.90±4.94, and 1194.17± 6.25 g. Feathered shank local hill fowl males had prominently mixed colours in their plumage with, black brown gold (43%), followed by black brown, black white, black golden and black red brown white. However, female birds had 50% single colour plumage; most frequent single colour was founded to be black followed by brown, dusty brown and almond colour. Feathered shank females also had notably mixed colour plumage (50%). It was found that feathered shank local hill fowl dominated with single type comb i.e. 99% and 98% in males and females birds, respectively. However, (2%) female birds possess pea type comb and male birds occasionally have rose comb (1%). Ear lobe was found to be mainly white red (46%) followed by yellow red (30%) and red (24%) in colour in feathered shank male hill fowl. However, red colour predominantly distributed (46%) in females followed by white red (44%) and yellow red (10%). Eyes were predominantly brown-black (45% in males and 54% in females), followed by grey-black (44% in males and 34% in females), orange-black (8% in males and 5% in females), total black (3% in males and 4% in females); and grey brown (3% in females only) in feathered shank local hill. The skin colour in feathered shank hill fowl was generally yellow. It was noted that black yellow colour shanks were the more frequently (53% in males and 61% in females) encountered in the feathered shank local hill fowl, followed by yellow shanks (28% in males and 5% females) and white yellow colour shanks (19% in males and 34% in females). The averages of heamoglobin packed cell volume (PCV), total leucocytes count (thousands /cmm), lymphocytes count, heterophils, monocytes, basophils, eosinophils and H: L ratio were found to be 12.94±0.06 g/dl, 39.6±0.25%, 24.04±0.10X103/cmm, 68.98±0.88, 16.40±0.66, 5.03±0.34, 2.46±0.11%, and 0.24±0.01 male birds and 9.73± 0.06 g/%, 31.6± 0.65%, 23.96±0.08 x103/cmm, 68.06±0.71, 10.11±0.83, 14.05±0.61, 4.43±0.14, 2.29±0.16% and 0.21±0.61 in female birds. The averages of total protein, albumin, and globulin, cholesterol, glucose and A: G ratio were 4.62±0.03 g/dl, 1.85±0.01 g/dl, 2.77±0.03 g/dl, 114.51±2.00 mg/dl, 235.62±0.92 mg/dl and 0.67±0.01 in male and 4.14±0.02 g/dl, 1.75±0.00 g/dl, 2.39±0.03 g/dl, 113.421±0.68 mg/dl, 234.38 ±1.64 mg/dl, 0.74 ±0.01 in female, respectively. Fertility, hatchability on the basis of fertile egg set and total egg set were 71.16±1.16, 85.32±1.68 and 60.78±1.70 per cent in feathered local hill fowl, respectively. The average live weight at twenty weeks of age, dressed weight, eviscerated weight, giblet weight, skin weight, feet and shank weight, head weight, feather weight, wing weight and neck weight were 1202.00±37.98, 922.80±31.37, 750.40±28.03, 66.60±1.13, 161.00±1.63,66.4±2.41, 42.20±1.55, 84.00±3.87, 90.60±3.29 and 54.40±2.12 g in male and 1044.00±6.68, 812.00±5.01, 643.00±3.43, 61.80±0.53, 151.00±2.41, 49.8±1.06, 37.80±0.58, 81.00±2.21, 83.2±1.24,and 48.20±1.69g in female, respectively .the average egg weight, shape index, haught units, shell thickness, specific gravity, albumin index, yolk index, albumin weight, albumin volume, yolk weight and shell weight in feathered shank local hill fowl were 52.74±0.62g, 70.61±1.05, 76.22±2.82, 0.38±0.01mm, 1.08±0.03, 0.09±0.01, 0.50±0.01, 27.75±0.74g, 25.70±0.25ml, 16.93±0.37g and 5.02±0.16 g, respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on morphological and performance traits of clean shank local hill fowl(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2009-06) Singh, Abhay Kumar; Singh, D.V.Present study was conducted to evaluate the morphological and performance traits in clean shank local hill fowl of Nainital region. Clean shank local hill fowls had mixed colour plumage. Most prominent was white colour, followed by black-white, black, golden with black spot, black-brown, brown-gold, black dark green spot on feathers and white with brown. Skin colour was generally yellow, followed by white, and black. Shank colour was mostly yellow, followed by black, white yellow, and white. Earlobe was found to be mainly red and white red. Eyes were predominantly greyblack, followed by black-brown, black and grey in clean shank local hill fowl. Majority of comb colour was found red with a few having pale comb and black colour comb. Mean body weight at day old, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 weeks of age were 31.84±0.24, 47.07±0.40, 57.84±0.38, 81.23±0.74, 114.47±0.53, 176.52±0.70, 267.3±1.02, 380.95±1.12, 526.65±0.93, 628.05±0.91, 762.25±1.17, 923.9±6.0, 1025.45±1.17 and 1206.55±6.26 g, respectively. Mean values of haemoglobin, PCV, TLC, lymphocytes, monocytes, heterophils, eosinophils and H:L ratio at 20 weeks of age were found to be 12.78±0.32 g%, 40.4±0.52%, 2.33±0.032 103/mm3, 67.4±0.94%, 7.5±0.40%, 20.1±0.86%, 4.2±0.35% and 0.29±0.01, respectively in male birds and 10.24±0.48 g%, 38.7±0.36%, 2.33±0.02 103/mm3, 64.4±0.88%, 7.4±0.42%, 23.4±0.83%, 4.7±0.49% and 0.35±0.01, respectively in female birds. Averages of total protein, albumin and globulin, cholesterol, glucose and A:G ratio at 20 weeks of age were 4.12±0.11 g/dl, 1.83±0.08 g/dl, 2.28±0.12 g/dl, 115.05±0.73 mg/dl, 234.04±0.88 mg/dl, 0.82±0.07 in male and 3.85±0.03 g/dl, 1.73±0.08 g/dl, 2.11±0.09 g/dl, 115.24±0.72 mg/dl, 233.25±0.85 mg/dl, 0.84±0.09 in female birds, respectively. Age at first egg laid, fertility, hatchability on the basis of fertile egg set and total egg set were 186.2±1.21 days, 82.0±1.0%, 88.4±0.82% and 74.4±0.82%, respectively in clean shank local hill fowl. Mean live weight, dressed weight, eviscerated weight, weight of giblet, skin, feet and shank, head, feather, wing and neck at 20 weeks of age were 1248±13.52, 974.0±14.42, 788.6±6.55, 61.40±0.65, 165.2±1.43, 70.6±0.96, 46.6±0.42, 87.2±0.81, 94.4±0.82 and 60.4±0.52 g in male and 1277±16.56, 945±21.79, 782±9.65, 60±1.20, 164.8±0.95, 56.2±1.23, 45.6±0.36, 84.0±1.0, 93.4±30.98 and 59.4±0.76 g in female birds, respectively. Average egg weight, shape index, haugh unit, shell thickness, specific gravity, albumin index, yolk index, albumin weight, albumin volume, yolk weight and shell weight in clean shank local hill fowl were 51.41±0.56 g, 72.86±0.12, 78.56±0.45, 0367±0.016 mm, 1.08±0.004, 0.083±0.004, 0.498±0.008, 30.40±0.46 g, 29.5±0.34 ml, 16.80±0.19 g and 6.25±0.18 g, respectively.ThesisItem Open Access Effect of addition of lochia on some characteristics of crossbred bulls’ semen(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2009-06) Iqbal, Syed Mohsin; Singh, D.V.The study was conducted on lochia (postpartum uterine secretion) samples collected from ten crossbred cows and semen from two crossbred bulls. The objective was to standardize the technique of lochia collection from crossbred cows and to study the effect of addition of lochia on progressive sperm motility percentage, live sperm percentage and abnormal sperm percentage of crossbred bulls’ semen. Lochia collection from uterus was done by using Foley’s catheter with syringe which helped to collect varying amount of lochia aseptically. The lochia added semen samples were divided into three treatment groups (T1, T2 and T3) composing different (0.5 ml, 1 ml and 2ml, respectively) volumes of semen and 0.1 ml of lochia. In Control group 0.1 ml normal saline was added instead of lochia in semen sample. The values of overall mean of progressive sperm motility1, Live2 and abnormal3 sperm count in T1, T2, T3 and control group were (64.9 ± 1.7, 36.0 ± 0.6 and 13.6 ± 0.9)1, (64.6 ± 2.0, 66.1 ± 1.8, 65.0 ±2.2, 66.3 ±1.8)2 and (4.9 ± 0.7, 4.8 ± 0.8, 3.9 ± 0.7 and 4.4 ± 0.6)3 at 0 hour, (36.0 ± 0.63, 36.6 ± 1.18, 35.2 ± 1.25, and 37.1 ± 1.32)1, (43.2 ± 2.0, 42.1 ± 1.7, 43.1 ± 2.2 and 42.7 ± 1.8 )2 and (5.5 ± 0.6, 5.3 ± 0.6, 4.9 ± 0.9 and 4.4 ± 1.0)3 after 4 hours and (13.6 ± 0.97, 12.7 ± 1.20, 14.3 ± 1.19 and 14.57 ± 1.35)1, (25.3 ± 1.6, 24.1 ± 1.1, 26.0 ± 1.3 and 24.2 ± 1.3)2 and (5.5 ± 0.6, 5.3 ± 0.6, 4.9 ± 0.9 and 4.4 ± 1.0)3 after 8 hours, respectively. There were no significant differences among these values of control and treatments. The results show that the lochia is not detrimental to the survivability of the sperm. Further detailed investigation with more purified lochia at other dilution rates is needed.ThesisItem Open Access Pathogenesis of susceptible and resistant strains of Haemonchus contortus in sheep(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2007-01) Rajanish Kumar; Yadav, C.L.Haemonchus contortus is the most pathogenic gastrointestinal nematode of sheep and goats. The anthelmintics are the only practical method to reduce the menace of haemonchosis. The indiscriminate use of anthelmintics has led to emergence of resistant strain/subspecies of H. contortus throughout the world. There are numerous reports of benzimidazole resistance in H. contortus from the world as well as India. The present study was planned to investigate differences in biological behaviour and pathogenecity of susceptible and FBZ resistant strain of H. contortus. The prepatent period of 17-18 days was recorded for both the strains. The mean total worm recovery of susceptible (1777.5), resistant (2680) and naturally infected sheep (1565) were recorded. The sex ratio, body weight loss and establishment rates were also measured for the both strains. The faecal egg count for susceptible strain 1683±33.0, for resistant strain 3775±118.3 and 1850±99.9 for naturally infected sheep were observed. Significant difference were observed between susceptible and resistant strain for worm count, sex ratio and establishment rates. The degree of reduction in PCV and Hb% indicated pathogenecity of worms but no significant differences were observed between susceptible and resistant strains. Peripheral eosinophil count and total erythrocytic count indicated significant difference between the two strains. The erythrocytic indices indicated normocytic, normochromic anaemia. The total iron levels of resistant strain infected group decreased significantly as compared to susceptible strain infected group. The total serum protein reduced from 6.95 ± 0.37 to 582 g/dl, 6.79 ± 0.20 to 3.53 ±0.28 and 6.88 ± 0.19 to 4.92 ± 0.47 from the day of infection to 49 DPI in susceptible, resistant strain infected sheep and sheep infected by grazing, respectively. The serum albumin levels also mirrored similar trends to total serum protein. Thus, hypoproteinaemia and hypoalbuminaemia was significantly more in resistant infected sheep. The serum pepsinogen level increased from 1.10 ± 0.23 to 2.67 ± 0.12 IU tyrosine in susceptible strain, 1.19 ± 0.27 to 3.23 ± 0.31 in resistant strain infected sheep and 1.37 ± 0.25 to 3.22 ± 0.03 IU tyrosine in sheep infected by grazing. Significant differences were recorded with regards to serum pepsinogen level between the two strains indicating higher abomasal damage in resistant strain infected sheep. Thus, it can be inferred that both the strains are different in their biological behaviour and the pathogenecity, with resistant strain being more pathogenic than susceptible strain.ThesisItem Open Access Immunological and molecular characterization of Marek’s disease virus isolated from field outbreaks(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2007-07) Chamling, Prerna; Umapathi, V.ThesisItem Open Access Clinicopathological studies on effects of brass industry effluent in animals(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2007-01) Manjunatha, K.N.; Thathoo, A.K.The present experiment was conducted to study the clinicopathological effects of Brass industry effluent in animals. For this, various samples (effluent, soil and fodder) were collected around the brass industries located in Moradabad and subjected to physico-chemical analysis. Toxicity of the effluent was studied by using mice as an experimental animal model. The physico-chemical analysis of effluent samples showed significantly (P<0.05) increased levels of COD, BOD, TS, TDS, TSS, and heavy metals as compared to control. There was significantly higher levels of metals in soil (Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb) and in fodder (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Cd, and Pb) samples that were collected from and around the industries compared to the control site. Animal experimentation revealed significant effects of the effluent on body and organ weights, hematological and biochemical parameters. There was significant decrease in body and liver weight as compared to control. Total erythrocyte count was increased significantly, whereas total leukocyte count decreased significantly as compare to the control. There was decrease in percent monocyte (%) and percent increase in the neutrophils as compared to the control. On serum biochemical examination it was evident that there was significantly (P<0.05) higher levels of BUN, Creatinine, AST and ALT, where as significant decrease in total protein and albumin levels as compared to the control. The levels of zinc, cadmium and lead in serum and liver samples of mice exposed to effluent were significantly (P<0.05) increased as compared to the control. The histopathological examination of various organs revealed, congestion, edema, adhesion of glomerulus to the Bowman‟s capsule, interstitial nephritis, extensive degeneration of tubular epithelium, proteinacious casts, atrophy of glomerulus, glomerular hemorrhages and necrosis in kidneys. Liver showed congestion, edema, vacuolar degeneration and dilatation of sinusoids. Congestion hemorrhages and focal areas of necrosis were seen in spleen. Lungs showed congestion, edema, emphysema, interstitial pneumonia, bronchopneumonia and focal areas of accumulation of mononuclear cells around bronchus. Testes showed mild congestion, edema, degeneration, detachment of cells from basement membrane, impaired spermatogenesis and atrophy of seminiferous tubules. In the brain, congestion, edema, perivascular cuffing, chromatolysis, neuronophagia and extensive vacuolations were observed. Based on above findings, it may be concluded that the effluent from brass industries have higher levels of COD, BOD, TS, TDS, TSS and heavy metals. Effluent discharged from these industries has increased the heavy metal concentration in and around the areas of these industries (soil and fodder). From the animal experiment, it is suggested that the brass industry effluent causes significant chronic health effects on animals.ThesisItem Open Access Isolation and characterization of fowlpox virus of poultry(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2007-07) Madanpal; Rao, V.D.P.Fowl pox is a contagious and slow spreading viral disease. It affects the birds of all age, sex and breeds. The disease is manifested in three different clinical forms–cutaneous, diphtheritic and oculo nasal forms. The mucosal lesions involving the mouth, esophagus and trachea can be confused with other respiratory diseases like infectious laryngotrachaetis, coryza etc. Keeping in view of the impact of disease on economics of poultry industry, the present study was undertaken to isolate the virus from scab lesions of birds of a poultry farm near Barielly following isolation of virus on chorioallantoic membrane (CAM), of developing chicken embryos, further characterization was carried by studying cytopathogenicity in cell culture and sero diagnostic tests. It was observed that virus was successfully adapted to CAM, CEF cells as well as in BHK 21 cell line. Characteristic pock lesion in CAM and CPE in unstained and stained preparations confirmed the presence of virus. In MGG staining, the cytopathic changes characterized by rounding of cells 24 hrs PI and the cytoplasmic vacuolation and syncytia formation by 48 hrs PI. In few cells, the nucleus occupied eccentric position and degenerative changes in the nucleus characterized by fragmentation of nuclear membrane in the infected CEF cells while the cytopathic changes in infected BHK 21cells were characterized by rounding of cells 36 hrs PI and the cytoplasmic vacuolation and syncytia formation by 48 hrs PI. The infectivity titre was calculated to be log104.25/ml (EID50/ml) on CAM and log10 9.79/ml (TCID50/ml) in CEF cell culture. The agar gel precipitation test (AGPT) revealed the precipitation band, which confirms the presence of antigen and antibody. Counter immunoelectrophorasis (CIE) showed a precipitation line within one hr of electrophoretic run. The indirect fluorescent antibody technique (IFAT) was used to demonstrate the virus in infected cell culture and cell line. The infected chicken embryo fibroblast cells revealed small particulate fluorescence in the cytoplasm of the cells. These tests confirmed that the virus isolate as fowlpoxvirus SDS-PAGE analysis of cell culture supernatant infected with FPV isolate revealed 11 polypeptides with molecular weights ranging from 120k Da to 15 kDa.