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Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad (Telangana State)
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ThesisItem Open Access A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY ON MAIZE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN TELANGANA STATE - AN ECONOMETRIC APPROACH(PROFFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2024-04-19) MARKA MAHESHNATH; DR. R. VIJAYA KUMARITelangana state ranks third position in Maize cultivation area and it is cultivated across the state in approximately 12.68 lakh hectares. This research aims to comprehensively analyze the production and market dynamics of maize in Telangana State. By understanding historical trends, forecasting future production and market prices, and evaluating the economics of maize production and marketing, this study seeks to provide insights into the state’s maize production. Additionally, it aims to examine price transmission between key markets in Telangana and India, identifying constraints in production and marketing and proposing policy measures to address these challenges, ultimately aiming to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of the maize sector in the region. Warangal Rural, Siddipet and Kamareddy districts of Telangana, which ranked top three in area under maize cultivation in the state were purposively selected for the study. Similarly, top two mandals in each district and top two villages in each sample mandal were selected. The required primary data for the study was gathered from 240 randomly chosen sample farmers from the selected villages using pre-tested, well structured schedules through personal interviews for the agricultural year 2019-20. District wise time series data on area, production, productivity and market prices of maize for the period from 1966-67 to 2021-22 were collected from different secondary sources. Trend analysis, cost and return analysis, marketing efficiency and co-integration analysis were employed to achieve the set of objectives and draw meaningful conclusion. The results of the study revealed that maize productivity in Telangana improved significantly, rising from 3204 kg/ha in 2001-02 to 6713 kg/ha in 2020-21. The average market price of maize in Telangana has shown an upward trend, increasing from ₹ 555/qtl in 2001-02 to ₹ 1669/qtl in 2020-21. The study also reveals that maize cultivation in Telangana follows intricate growth patterns, possibly influenced by a combination of factors. The cubic and power models provided better insights into these trends compared to simpler models. Using the ARIMA (2,1,2) model, it was forecasted that maize prices in Telangana would be ₹ 2182.16 in January 2023 and ₹ 2067.90 in December 2023 and also maize production in Telangana was forecasted to be 23.10 LT in 2022-23, 23.46 LT in 2023-24, and 23.82 LT in 2024-25. Price transmission between the markets explained unidirectional causality in Nagarkurnool-Badepally, Siddipet-Badepally, and Nizamabad-Nagarkurnool pairs, where changes in the former market affected price formation in the latter market. The remaining markets did not exhibit causality, indicating that price changes in one market did not feedback to influence the other. The findings also revealed that the average overall cost of cultivating maize per hectare was Rs. 80536.70, Rs. 80875.84, and Rs. 80264.72 in the districts of Warangal Rural, Siddipet, Kamareddy, respectively. The same on pooled farms was found to be Rs. 80775.57. With regard to gross income, Warangal Rural district reported the highest ₹ 144,619.75 per hectare, showcasing strong revenue generation from maize cultivation. Siddipet had the lowest gross income at ₹ 120,119.64 per hectare. Warangal Rural is the most profitable district for maize cultivation, while Siddipet is the least profitable among the studied regions. With respect to the marketing efficiency, price spread was ₹ 470.66 per quintal for Channel I and ₹ 449.30 per quintal for Channel II. The analysis of marketing margin and marketing efficiency in maize marketing revealed variations in prices, margins, and efficiency between the two channels. The Garette ranking analysis depicted uncertain rainfall (83.13) and shortage of labour (79.95) as the major constraints faced by farmers in maize production with maximum scores. In case of marketing, more number of middlemen in the market (82.65) and price fluctuations (79.13) were found as the major marketing constraints. The study presents a comprehensive overview of maize production, market trends, and constraints in Telangana State, highlighting significant improvements in productivity and price escalation over the years. Notably, maize productivity doubled between 2001 02 and 2020-21, while prices experienced a substantial upward trajectory during the same period. Forecasting models revealed anticipated price and production figures for 2023-24 and 2024-25, aiding in future planning. Price transmission analysis identified key market relationships, delineating causality and inter-market influences. Additionally, cost analysis per hectare and gross income across districts unveiled varied profitability, with Warangal Rural emerging as the most lucrative region for maize cultivation. Constraints such as uncertain rainfall and limited access to inputs and credit were highlighted, particularly affecting small and marginal farmers. The study underscores the potential positive economic impacts of maize farming on farmer incomes and the state economy, offering valuable insights for farmers and policymakers to optimize farming practices, investments, and policy interventions. The results of the study suggested that, shifting focus towards cost-effective production technologies and farm machinery will boost productivity and farmers income. Public sector initiatives to produce high-quality maize seeds at affordable rates can compete with the private sector, ensuring seed availability. Encouraging farmer cooperatives for collective production and marketing can elevate income levels. Establishing widespread marketing systems for fair maize procurement can incentivize farmers to continue cultivation. Low-cost storage infrastructure and market tie-ups with industrial units will prevent market gluts and strengthen the maize value chain. Additionally, setting up feed manufacturing units in major growing areas can further expand maize production, while disseminating price forecasts through digital platforms can mitigate price risks and volatility, aiding farmers in decision-making regarding production, storage, and marketing strategies. Implementing these policy implications can significantly enhance maize farming in Telangana StateThesisItem Open Access VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPACT OF ADAPTATION STRATEGIES ON PRODUCTIVITY AND INCOME OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN TELANGANA STATE(PROFFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2021-07-01) Ramya Sri, Ch.; Suhasini, K.Climate change refers to the change in the state of climate that can be identified by a change in the meanvariability of its properties and that persists for extended periods. Climate change is a major challenge for developing countries like India that face large scale climate variability and exposure to enhanced risks from climate change. Few countries in the world are vulnerable to the effects of climate change as India is with its vast population that is dependent on the growth of its agrarian economy, itscoastal areas, and the Himalayan region and islands. India is highly susceptible and risk-prone to climate change more than many other countries in the world. In the last few years, India’s vulnerability to climate change has increased because of high population growth, poverty and extreme weather conditions etc. It accounts for 2.4% of the world surface area but supports around 17.5% of the world population. It houses the largest proportion of global poor (30%), around 24% of the global population without access to electricity (304 million), about 30% of the global population relying on solid biomass for cooking, and 92 million without access to safe drinking water. (MOSPI,2015). Among the states of India, Telangana is prone to frequent droughts, resulting in distress among farming communities, and witnessed frequent incidences of droughts and crop failures leading to farmer’s suicides (Socio-economic outlook 2018, 2019). Telangana is one of the states of India where, interdependence between economic growth, agriculture, and climate variability are more predominant. The livelihood of most of the rural and low-income communities is based on agriculture, livestock, and Author : CH. RAMYA SRI Title of thesis : VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPACT OF ADAPTATION STRATEGIES ON PRODUCTIVITY AND INCOME OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN TELANGANA STATE Major Advisor : Dr. K. SUHASINI Degree to which it is submitted : DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURE Faculty : AGRICULTURE Discipline : AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS College : COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, RAJENDRANAGAR University : PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY poultryto a large extent. In Telangana, almost 50% of the state’s population is directly engaged in agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood. Based on the above brief background the present study entitled “Vulnerability to climate change impact of adaptation strategies on productivity and income of farm households in Telangana State” was undertaken. District wise vulnerability has been calculatedfor undivided districts of Telangana (2014) along with normalized scores considering 17 parameters by taking unequal weights from experts using ‘Delphi method’. In particular, Mahbubnagar has emerged to be most vulnerable district with an index of (1.42) while, Khammam is found to be least vulnerable district with an index (0.33). The extent of vulnerability had its effect on cropping intensity, cropping pattern, irrigation intensity, and crop yields.After the determination of most vulnerable and least vulnerable districts of Mahabubnagar and Khammam were purposively selected for primary data survey. Multi stage purposively sampling technique is adopted to select mandals, villages and farmers. A sample of 480 i.e., 240 in each district were selected. The data required for fulfilment of the study included obtained from both primary and secondary sources The results revealed that among the sample farmers spread over Khammamand Mahabubnagar, 74% consisted of relatively young (41-50 years) groupof farmers.The mean family size of the farmers in the two districts was 3.55 and 3.23 numbers, evidently supported the argument of predominance of nuclear families in rural areas also. This would reduce the no. of family members available for the farm work.The literacy status of the sample indicated that more illiteracy prevailed in Mahabubnagar (48.75%) compared to 35% in Khammam. Coming to the long-term behavior of key climate parameters, there were variations in the annual rainfall received among the districts. These variations were considerably high with a range of 20.95 CV to 33.09 CV recorded by Rangareddy and Nalgonda indicating high fluctuations in the rainfall received.In the Southern Telangana Zone (STZ) all the three districts Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda and Rangareddy received scanty rainfall over past 30 years. Massive afforestation should be taken up by the district authorities to have long-term solutions for bringing a change in the rainfall pattern observed. During the past three decades variations in maximum and minimum temperatures were high in Adilabad and Warangal. The mean depth of ground water was highest registered in Mahabubnagar (10.06 mbgl) followed by Rangareddy (9.73 mbgl) and Medak districts (9.11 mbgl) while lowest was registered in Adilabad (5.88 mbgl). Precipitation has a significant positive impact (0.39) on rice and maize yields. Maximum and minimum temperatures have positive and high significant impact 78.37 and 80.92 on maize yields respectively for pooled sample of two districts. Ground water (43.46) has significant and positive impact on rice yields. To understand the changes in the cropping pattern, percentage of Five year moving average to the total cropped area were worked out for the past 30 years, revealed that rice crop had increased from 37% to 47% in Karimnagar, 29% to 42% in Nalgonda and 26% to 32% in Warangal districts during the year 1992-2017.Maize area had increased from 2% to 8% in Khammam, 2% to 18% in Mahabubnagar,16% to 41% in Medak, 20% to 49% in Nizamabad, 27% to 37% in Rangareddy and 4% to 17% in Warangal but declined from 12% to 5% in Adilabad during the period 1992-2017. Cotton area had increased in all the districts i.e 24% to 68% in Adilabad, 5% to 33% in Karimnagar, 7% to 39% in Khammam, 5% to 27% in Mahabubnagar, 1% to 37% in Medak, 2% to 49% in Nizamabad, 4% to 13% in Rangareddy and 9% to 39% in Warangal during the FYMA periods considered from 1992-2017.Jowar area had decreased from 30% to 4% in Adilabad, 21% to 4% in Mahabubnagar, 29% to 4% in Medak, 10% to 4% in Nizamabad and 24% to 6% in Rangareddy districts during the year 1992-2017.Redgram had declined area from 35% to 1% in Khammam, 4% to 16% in Mahabubnagar, 3% to 7% in Medak and 7% to 13% in Rangareddy districts during the year 1992-2017.The impact of climate change was clear that some staple crops jowar and red gram have totally vanished, with an dominant cropping pattern comprising of rice , cotton and maize crops. Modified entropy index used to calculate district wise extent of crop diversification. Among the districts, Mahabubnagar had recorded its highest crop diversity in the year 2000 with MEI of 0.084 and showed a decreasing trend from the following year and recorded lowest crop diversity i.e. 0.015 among all the districts of southern Telangana in the year 2015. Adilabad district narrowedin crop diversification. Majority of area its area diverted to cotton and paddy Karimnagar followed the similar trend. Khammam showed little variation in crop diversification and the area is diverted to paddy and cotton. Mahabubnagar had recorded highest crop diversity with MEI of 0.084 value and later it showed declining trend and crops are diverted to paddy, cotton, maize, groundnut, jowar and oilseeds. Medak had maintained an average crop diversity and further it showed a steep decreasing trend and reached the lowest crop diversity and diverted to paddy, maize, cotton, jowar and Greengram. Nalgonda had a decline in crop diversity from 0.081 to 0.036 during the year (1988-2017) and diverted the areas to paddy, castor, cotton and Greengram. Nizamabad had followed almost similar trend in the cropping pattern but most of the area is diverted to paddy, maize, cotton and black gram. Rangareddy had maintained a high cropping diversity and the area is diverted to paddy, maize and jowar. Warangal had maintained similar pattern of crop diversity but most of area is diverted to paddy, maize and cotton. Crop shifts happened and probable crops to gain and lose were analysed by employing Markov chain analysis has been attempted district-wise and captured the changes and shifts in the cropping pattern during the period (1988-2017). The crops considered in the study were rice, jowar, bajra, maize, black gram, cow gram, horse gram, red gram, chillies, groundnut, castor, cotton and other crops. In Adilabad, the area shifts towards jowar, pulses and oilseeds will fetch the farming community. Rice had a probability of losing its area to maize and cotton and it can gain from red gram castor, maize and jowar indicating the crop shifts happened between irrigated dry crops and rice, which is undesirable in Karimnagar. In Khammam, indiscriminate shifts of areas under jowar, bajra and chillies had taken place. Jowar and bajra have highest probability of losing area to bajra and jowar respectively in Mahabubnagar. Any change in food habits of urban consumers has to act as a driver of the acceptance of jowar in rural consumption thereby jowar can regain its area under cultivation in Medak district.Rice in Nalgonda has a probability of gain from black gram and horse gram and probability of loss of area to red gram and cotton. Rice, maize, redgram and cotton are competing crops in Nizamabad.Oil seeds can be promoted and red gram does not show any probable loss or gain from other crops in Rangareddy district. It can be concluded that rice, jowar, maize, redgram, groundnut and cotton are the most competing crops in Warangal district. Among the climate adaptation technologies followed by most vulnerable Mahabubnagar district and least vulnerable district Khammam farmers were to change the cropping pattern was reported by 99.5% of Khammam farmers and change the crop varieties to drought tolerant varieties was reported by 96.25% of the Mahabubnagar farmers as a first measure. The second measure followed by 97.91 % of Khammam farmers and 94.28% of farmers in Mahabubnagar were changing variety and change in cropping pattern and delayed sowing respectively. Third adaptation measure to leave the existing crop and grow in the next season was adopted as third preference in both districts, because by the time of occurrence and experience the impact of drought, the part of the season will be passed on during that season due inputs were already consumed along with seed which require incurring expenditure from the farmer. If they further want to grow another crop as a contingent crop in the same season it is difficult to meet the added investment of farmer and results in his indebtedness. The factors influencing technology adoption using Tobit analysis revealed that Technology adaptation index is positively correlated to farm income in Khammam but was negative in Mahabubnagar. May be in Mahabubnagar the farm income did not suffice the expenditure for additional expenditure for TAI. In order to study if there is any cumulative influence of level technology adaptation on farm income along with other factors such as age, education, farm size, seed, cropping intensity, fertilizer use, plant protection chemicals, experience, no of members available for farm work, human labour, credit availability and cropping intensity were considered and multiple linear regression analysis was carried showed that seeds and plant protection chemicals showed negative correlation with farm income indicating the excessive use in both the districts. However, fertilizers (1.888) and credit availability (0.372) have significantly influenced farm income in Khammam district. In Mahabubnagar size of holding has significantly influenced the farm income. TAI produced a nonsignificant positive influence on farm income. Finally, forecasting had been done for the climate parameters i.eseasonalARIMA, SARIMA was tried for minimum, maximum temperatures, rainfall and depth of ground water levels for Khammam and Mahabubnagar districts to know the fluctuations in these climate parameters over a period of five years. This revealed that minimum temperatures might be decline in Khammam by (22.96o c) and might also decline in Mahabubnagar, conversely the maximum temperatures (33.67o c) were predicted to be stable. Similarly, slightest increased rainfall (33.6 mm) and sharp decline in average monthly rainfall (23.78 mm) values were predicted for Mahabubnagar and Khammam. The ground water was predicted to improve to 3 to 4 mbgl in Khammam and will deepen to 12 mbgl in Mahabubnagar. The study results advocates the priority order of action to be taken up district wise in the order of vulnerability indices, i.eMahabubnagar is the priority to fight climate change. Crop research is to be initiated towards abiotic stress such as tolerance to reduced minimum temperatures in cotton. The programmes like per drop more crop, crop insurance and risk mitigation have to be expanded and encouraged. The deepening ground water levels have to be tackled by initiating ground water conservation, watershed programmes in Mahabubnagar. Paradigm shift is required in technology development by giving more emphasis on technologies to combat climatic aberrations.ThesisItem Open Access ADOPTION AND IMPACT OF IMPROVED RICE VARIETIES OF PJTSAU IN TELANGANA STATE(PROFFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2021-07-01) Tamilazhakil; Vijaya Kumari, R.Agricultural research systems all over the world are applauded for their major contributions to food and nutritional security and poverty alleviation. The Indian experience on the success of Green Revolution has made it clear that appropriate technologies, supported by facilitating public policies and efficient institutions, can transform smallholder agriculture. Systematic impact assessment studies relating to returns to investment made by the institutions help to achieve specific research and development objectives. The system now will require to regulate R&D in such a manner that it not only complies with international commitments and scientific principles but also seeks participation of stakeholders and incorporates social voice in decision making. State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) occupy a major part in Indian Agricultural Research leading to the development of location and climate specific technologies. Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University (PJTSAU) is one such SAU which continues to serve the farmers in increasing production and productivity in agricultural and allied sectors through experimentation carried out by a strong network of 15 research stations strategically located in the three Agro-climatic zones. Developing new crop varieties/ hybrids in tune with the changing needs, situations and circumstances is a continuous research process and is a multi-disciplinary team effort. Rice is the staple food crop feeding most of the world population. This validates the need for research in rice crop in the areas of improving the yield, quality and resource productivity. So far, the university has released 8 improved rice varieties, majority of which have been under extensive cultivation by the farmers not only in Telangana state but also in neighbouring states. Some of the prominent varieties are RNR 15048 (Telangana Sona), KNM 118 (Kunaram Sannalu) and JGL 18057 (Bathukamma). With this background, the study was undertaken with the specific objectives to assess the impact of the improved rice varieties, factors influencing the adoption of the varieties, contribution of the varieties in terms of increasing rice productivity and income of the farmers and the constraints involved in the adoption of the varieties and suggest suitable measures. Wanaparthy, Karimnagar and Medak districts were selected for the study on the basis of highest area coverage under RNR 15048 (Telangana Sona), KNM 118 (Kunaram Sannalu) and JGL 18047 (Bathukamma) rice varieties, respectively. A total of 360 farmers (120 farmers for each variety) were considered for the study. The study was based xiv on both primary and secondary data which were collected through field survey using pre tested schedule and various published sources. Descriptive analysis was done by working out simple averages and percentages with respect to characteristics of sample farm households, costs and returns and benefits from the improved rice varieties. DREAM model developed by IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute) was used to assess the ex-ante impact of the varieties developed by the University. Logit model was employed to study the factors influencing the adoption of the improved varieties of rice in the study area. The cost incurred to and the returns from the cultivation of these varieties were computed. Garrett ranking technique was specially used for the purpose of drawing valid conclusions on the constraints faced by the farmers. Assumption-based and market-based variables were applied in the model which works based on Economic Surplus Method. The results of the DREAM model revealed that both RNR 15048 (IRR of 21.97% and 30.35% at 15 and 40 per cent adoption rates, respectively) and KNM 118 (IRR of 21.76% and 30.96% at 10 and 30 per cent adoption rates respectively) had producer surplus higher than consumer surplus. The total surplus of RNR 15048 was ranging between ₹5525121 and ₹14740014. In the case of KNM 118, the range of total surplus was from ₹3683096 to ₹11053103 depending on the rate of adoption of the variety with study area. JGL 18047 showed negative surplus because of the reduced yield compared to other varieties cultivated in the area. Hence, an additional scenario was considered in which the yield of JGL 18047 was higher than the other varieties compared such as MTU 1010, MTU 1156 and MTU 1153. In that case, the variety exhibited positive surplus. Therefore, RNR 15048 and KNM 118 varieties were found to be profitable to both the consumers and producers whereas that is not the case for JGL 18047 which was mainly due to the lesser yield than the other varieties cultivated in the area. Extent of adoption was assessed based on the seed distribution under subsidised price by Telangana Government. The data collected from the office of Agriculture Commissioner during 2018-19 and 2019-20 indicated that the quantity of seed disbursed, the area under adoption and the number of beneficiaries benefitted out of the Government seed delivery system increased for the varieties RNR 15048 and KNM 118 whereas the extent of adoption got decreased for JGL 18047. This indicates that the farmers started abandoning JGL 18047 while the extent of adoption was considerably increasing for the other two varieties RNR 15048 and KNM 118. The factors influencing adoption of the varieties were found out using the limited dependent variable model, Logit, computationally easier to use and leads itself to a meaningful interpretation than the other types. The results from Logit model revealed that off-farm income, access to credit, perception about disease and pest resistance were found to be the factors influencing the adoption of RNR 15048 (Telangana Sona) rice variety with Wald χ2 values 14.36, 8.49 and 6.81, respectively. Similarly, the availability of off-farm income, contact with extension agency and perception of high yield were observed to be influencing the adoption of KNM 118 (Kunaram Sannalu) variety with Wald χ2 values of 14.81, 11.50 and 12.48 respectively. And contact with extension agent and perception of high yield were found to be highly influencing the adoption of JGL 18047 (Bathukamma) variety with corresponding Wald χ2 values of 11.24 and 13.48, respectively. Based on the results obtained from the Logit model for all the three varieties, off- farm income, contact with extension agency, perception of high yield and pest and disease resistance were found to be predominantly influencing the adoption decisions of the improved rice varieties of PJTSAU. Knowing these factors will help in streamlining the varietal Research and Development process through inculcating more of such traits in the varietal development process. xv The cost of cultivation of RNR 15048 was found to be lesser when compared to the other varieties grown in Wanaparthy district. Hence, the net returns (₹45005.27/ha) of the farmers cultivating RNR 15048 variety was found to be 22.86 per cent higher than the famers cultivating varieties other than RNR 15048 (₹37617.99/ha). The difference in cost of cultivation may be mainly attributed to the higher cost of plant protection incurred towards long adopted BPT 5204 variety (under other rice varieties). Thus, RNR 15048 was found better economically when compared to the other varieties grown in the study area. In case of KNM 118 (Kunaram Sannalu), the major contributor for the difference in cost of cultivation for other varieties was fertilizer cost which may be for the farmers’ perception that higher use of fertilizers cause lodging of KNM 118 crop. The net returns (₹40860.40/ha) of the farmers cultivating KNM 118 variety was found to be 4.16 per cent higher than the famers cultivating other varieties (₹39226.88/ha). Coming to JGL 18047 variety which was cultivated mostly around Medak district, the other varieties grown in the area were found to incur lesser cost of cultivation (₹83049.76/ha) when compared to JGL 18047 (Bathukamma) variety (₹84363.45/ha). This might be owed to the reason that JGL 18047 incurred 19.01 per cent more cost on plant protection in comparison with the other varieties grown in the study area. Out of all the three varieties taken for the study, RNR 15048 (Telangana Sona) was found to have a better economic performance when compared to other two varieties KNM 118 and JGL 18047. This showed that RNR 15048 and KNM 118 outperformed the other varieties grown in the study area. Pest incidence, lower grain weight and less shelf life of cooked rice were the foremost problems reported by the farmers adopting RNR 15048 (Telangana Sona) rice variety with respective Garrett scores of 40.75, 36.23 and 31.79. Declining yield over years and lodging were the most pressing problems reported by the farmers cultivating KNM 118 (Kunaram Sannalu) with Garrett scores of 49.30 and 40.70 respectively. Lodging of crops before harvest, shattering of grains in Rabi and lower grain weight were prominently reported by the farmers who adopted JGL 18047 (Bathukamma) with Garrett scores of 41.95, 40.13 and 31.62 respectively. Repeated adoption of all the three varieties were primarily decided by the consistency of yield and disease & pest resistance shown by the varieties. Lower grain weight, varietal rotation and lodging were the reasons reported by majority of the farmers for dropping out the adoption of the varieties RNR 15048, KNM 118 and JGL 18047, respectively. Farmers’ perception on varietal rotation to be done for consistent yield has led to variety replacement by the more recent generation of farmers. Indiscriminate use of plant protection chemicals and non-adoption of recommended dose of fertilizers and planting time were few among the other reasons which were contributing to some of the problems reported by the adopters. These problems can be solved by creation of proper awareness among farmers regarding the planting time, recommended fertiliser doses with its benefits and the difference between varietal rotation and crop rotation. The overall analysis of the study revealed a positive impact of the improved rice varieties on the sample households. The adoption of the varieties developed by the university was found to be increasing in study area every year except for JGL 18047 (Bathukamma). To overcome the problems revealed by sample farmers, certain policy recommendations were put forth for sustainable development of crop improvement. Few of the important suggestions are establishing linkage between scientists and extension personnel for tracking down the path of the variety dissemination and thereby ensuring better follow up of the varieties, strengthening research through development of varieties which shows consistent yield under all agro-climatic conditions, building up extension services through awareness campaigns about the varieties before every sowing season and increasing investment on the development of varieties considering market preference.ThesisItem Open Access SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF FARMER PRODUCER ORGANISATIONS IN TELANGANA - A COMPARATIVE STUDY(PROFFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2021-07-01) Rajini Devi, D. A.; Vijaya Kumari, R.Indian agriculture is dominated by large amount of fragmented land holdings. Eighty five per cent of these land holdings are owned by small and marginal farmers. Being unorganized, the farmers are unable to reap high value for output. These smallholder farmers were hindered from innovating and participating in agri-food value chains due to the low investments in market systems and infrastructure. These problems will be alleviated by organizing them into Farmer Producer Organisation (FPO). FPO concept was started in the year 2011-2012 to provide end-to-end services to small farmers, covering all aspects of agriculture from input supply to technical services to processing and marketing. Thus, enabling better income for the producers through an organized system of their own. Recognizing the importance, the year 2014 is being observed as the “Year of Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs)” by Government of India. Both Central (SFAC and NABARD) and State Governments and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are emphasizing on promoting Producer Organisations. In Telangana state, FPOs have been established from 2013 onwards and at present there were 25, 74, 18 and 16 FPOs promoted by SFAC, NABARD, Telangana State Government and other Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) respectively. Keeping this in view, the present study entitled “Socio-Economic impact of Farmer Producer Organisations in Telangana-A comparative study” was undertaken to examine the factors that are responsible for joining the FPC by sample farmers, to study the extent of participation of member farmers in activities of FPCs, to measure the changes in livestock and asset possession of member farmers, examine the impact of FPC activities on socio-economic conditions of farmers and to identify the new model for better performance of selected FPCs. Five FPCs in Telangana State comprising one each in Medak (Zaheerabad FPC of NABARD), Sangareddy (Kowdipally FPC of Telangana State Government) and three in Vikarabad district (Hasnabad FPC, Kodangal FPC and Angadi Raichur FPC of SFAC) were purposively selected for the study. The sample farmers were selected using random sampling technique. A sample of 30 member farmers from each FPC along with 30 non-member farmers who were not participated in FPC were selected. Thus, a total of 300 sample farmers for five FPCs were considered for the study. The study is based on both primary and secondary data which were collected through field survey using pre-tested schedule and project reports of FPCs. Various analytical techniques were used to analyse the collected data. Descriptive analysis was done by working out simple averages and percentages of characteristics of sample farm households, and costs and returns of member and non-member farmers. Logit model was employed to know the factors influencing the farmers to become the members of FPCs. Difference in Difference method was used to assess the impact of FPC on crop yields, gross income and livelihood pattern of sample farmers. Garrett ranking technique was specially used for the purpose of drawing valid conclusions on constraints faced by the farmers. Majority of all selected five FPC member farmers belonged to middle age category (30-50 years). About 76.67, 66.67, 70.00, 73.33 and 60.00 per cent of member farmers have primary level of education (0 to 5th) in case of HFPC, KFPC, AFPC, ZFPC and KoFPC respectively. 43.33, 50.00, 53.33, per cent of HFPC, KFPC and AFPC member farmers had small size of family group (<4) respectively. Whereas, 50.00 and 56.66 per cent of ZFPC and KoFPC members had medium size of family group (4-6). The majority of the sample members of HFPC (66.67%), KFPC (63.33%), AFPC (86.67%) and KoFPC (66.67%) belonged to backward classes. Whereas, all the member farmers belonged to Scheduled Tribe in case of ZFPC. Agriculture was the main occupation of both member and non-member farmers of all selected FPCs except ZFPC non-members. The results of logit regression revealed age, education, size of land holding, farm income, experience in farming, access to market information, contact with State Agriculture Department officials, savings and experience in farming as most influencing factors that are responsible for joining the FPCs. The results of class interval technique indicated that majority of HFPC, KFPC, AFPC and KoFPC member farmers had medium extent of participation accounting to 80.00, 83.33, 56.67 and 70.00 per cent respectively in various services or activities provided by FPCs. Whereas, low extent of participation was observed in case of ZFPC member farmers. Among the various services, highest participation by member farmers was observed in market access, production management and network management services. Application of difference in difference regression indicated that major crop yields were increased after participation in FPCs and it was accounted to 0.39, 0.66 and 0.45 q ha-1 of red gram for HFPC, KFPC and AFPC member farmers respectively. The red gram equivalent yield and paddy yields were increased by 0.59 and 1.02 q ha-1 for ZFPC and KoFPC sample member farmers respectively. The gross and net returns were also increased by ₹ 3610.52 and ₹ 1979.42 per hectare for HFPC member farmers. Whereas, increase in the same were accounted to ₹ 4196.03 and ₹ 3158.01 per hectare for KFPC member farmers and ₹ 4141.43 and ₹ 5104.64 per hectare for AFPC member farmers respectively. In case of ZFPC member farmers gross and net returns were observed to be more by ₹ 4131.26 and ₹ 6090.10 per hectare. With regard to KoFPC member farmers, the increase in gross and net returns were ₹ 5081.16 and ₹ 8021.41 per hectare. Total annual farm income was increased by ₹ 14977.13, ₹ 25481.23, ₹ 27675.00, ₹ 46398.80 and ₹ 12052.59 for HFPC, KFPC, AFPC, ZFPC and KoFPC sample member farmers respectively after joining FPCs. The probable reason for this increase may be the result of increased technical support including trainings on value chain approaches, extension approaches and marketing by member farmers through the intervention of FPCs. Membership pattern of selected FPCs revealed an increasing trend over the years. The various financial ratio measures revealed that the FPCs were trying to be sustain in doing business. FPCs had a significant positive impact on livelihood pattern including habitat, educational, health security and the level of social empowerment on member farmers. Major problems that are hindering the performance of all five selected FPCs included internal constraints like illiteracy of Board of Directors (BoDs), lack of infrastructural facilities, unavailability and high cost of labour and difficulty to meet quality standards of output by member farmers. Policy constraints include lack of capital and assured procurement facilities in common. The overall analysis of the study revealed a positive impact of FPCs on member farmers. However, to overcome the problems revealed by sample farmers, certain policy recommendations were put forth for better performance. They include, linkage of FPCs with State Agricultural Universities, State Agriculture Department, ATMA and private institutions for technical as well as input services and also with external actors like agri start-ups for value chain development. Strengthening informal and nonformal education system through Farmer Field School (FFS) and Kisan Business Schools (KBS) to help CEO, BoDs and farmer members to acquire skills and knowledge on managing their resources and business is need of hour. In addition, Government support by providing grant to meet working capital and administrative costs is needed. Government may also extend policy support to perform FPCs as agencies for procurement of produce and implementation of farmer centric schemes like RKVY, NFSM, etc. through FPCs will result in better performance.ThesisItem Open Access GROWTH, INSTABILITY AND SUPPLY RESPONSE OF GROUNDNUT AND SUNFLOWER OILSEED CROPS IN KARNATAKA: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS(PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2018) JAINUDDIN MULLA; SEEMAIndia is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world and oilseed sector occupies an important position in the agricultural economy of the country. In terms of acreage, production and economic value, these crops are second only to food grains. Oilseed cultivation is undertaken across the country over an area of 26.13 million hectares with production was around 25.30 million tonnes and yield was 968 kg per hectare (GOI, 2016). As per the annual report of Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, India accounts for 12-15 per cent of oilseeds area, 7-8 per cent of oilseeds production in the world (GOI, 2014). Domestic consumption of edible oils has increased substantially over the years and has touched the level of 19.82 million tonnes during 2012-13 (GOI, 2014). Karnataka is the sixth largest state in area and production of oilseeds crops in India. Among the oilseed crops, sunflower and groundnut accounts highest in area and production in Karnataka state (GOK, 2013). The present study was undertaken in Karnataka state with the overall objectives of assessing the growth, instability and the oilseed farmer’s response to changes in price and non-price factors. Based on the supply response elasticities of farmers, the policy can be recommended for the growth and development of agricultural sector in general and of oilseed sector in particular in Karnataka state. The data pertaining to different variables at district and state level for the period 1975-76 to 2015-16 were obtained from various secondary sources. The whole period (1975-76 to 2015-16) was divided in two sub periods; period I (1975-76 to 1995-96) and period II (1995-96 to 2015-16) to assess the impact of new technological innovations evolved after 1995s. The analysis was carried out by using CAGR, Coppock’s Instability Index (CII), Cuddy-Della Valle Index (CDI), Coefficient of Variation (CV), Hazel’s Decomposition Model, Nerlove Price Expectation Model and Vector Error Correction Model. The growth pattern of groundnut witnessed a downward trend with respect to area, production and yield in all the four regions of Karnataka for the period II as compared to period I. The mixed trend was observed during the whole period. The growth pattern of sunflower indicated a downward trend in respect of area and production in all the four regions of Karnataka state for the period II as compared to period I. The positive trend was observed in sunflower yield in some districts during period II. The mixed trend was observed during the whole period. The study noticed that the Bangalore and Mysore divisions witnessed a significantly negative growth in sunflower yield, while the Belgaum and Gulbarga division exhibited a significantly positive growth rate per annum during period II than compared to period I. The CII showed that the fluctuation in area, production and yield of groundnut was found to be higher in Mysore division and lower in Gulbarga division. CV indicates that the fluctuation in area and production of groundnut was found to be higher in Bangalore division, whereas highest variability in yield was found in Belgaum division. The CDI indicates that the fluctuation in area, production and yield of groundnut was found to be higher in Bangalore division than compared to other divisions. The inter period comparison of instability through CV indicates higher instability in area, production and yield of groundnut during period II than compared to period I. The inter period comparison of instability though CDI indicates that period II and whole period witnessed higher instability in area, production and yield as compared to period I. The instability results obtained from CII, CV and CDI are marginally same in area and yield except production of groundnut, where fluctuation in production from CII was found to be higher when compared to CV and CDI. CII indicates that fluctuation in production and yield of sunflower were found to be higher in Mysore division, whereas highest variation in area was noticed in Belgaum division. The CV indicates that the fluctuation in area and production of sunflower were found to be higher in Belgaum division, whereas highest variability in yield was found in Mysore division. The CDI shows fluctuation in production and yield of sunflower to be higher in Mysore division, whereas highest fluctuation was found in Belgaum division than compared to other divisions. The instability results obtained from CII, CV and CDI are marginally same in area production and yield of sunflower in all divisions, but the variation in area, production and yield of sunflower was found to be more when compared to variation in area, production and yield of groundnut in all the divisions. The interaction effect of change in mean yield and mean area are important sources of growth in groundnut and sunflower during period I, whereas same act as important sources of growth in sunflower during whole period. The individual change in mean yield and change in mean area were important sources of growth in both groundnut and sunflower in all four divisions viz., Bangalore, Mysore, Belgaum and Gulbarga divisions and Karnataka state as whole during period II. The variances in production of groundnut for the state as a whole was predominantly due to interaction between changes in mean yield and mean area followed by change in yield variance and change in area variance during whole period and period I. During period II, variance in production of groundnut was predominantly due to change in mean area followed by change in mean yield and change in residual during period II. The variances in production of sunflower for the state as a whole was predominantly due to interaction between change in mean yield and mean area followed by change in area variance and change in yield variance during the whole period. During period I, change in mean area contributed more to the variance of sunflower production followed by change in area variance and interaction between change in mean area and yield and change in area-yield covariance. The variance in production of sunflower was predominantly due to change in area variance followed by change in mean yield and change in mean area during period II. During the whole period, the coefficients of area response for groundnut indicated that the previous year's area had exerted significant positive influence on current year's area under the crop in all the four regions and state as a whole. The price of competing crop exerted significant negative influence whereas total rainfall exerted significant positive influence on current year’s area under crop in Mysore and Gulbarga divisions. The total rainfalls were found to be positive and significant in Bangalore division. The previous year's price had exerted significant positive influence on current year's area under the crop in Mysore division only during period I. The current year rainfall had exerted significant positive influence on current year's area under the crop in Bangalore, Mysore and Gulbarga divisions. The previous year's area had exerted significant positive influence on current year's area under the crop in all four divisions and state level during period I, whereas the same was found to be significantly positive in all divisions and state as a whole except Mysore division during period II. The study concluded that non price factors influenced more on current year’s area under the crop than compared to price factor in groundnut. The production and yield response model concluded that lagged dependent variable (lagged production and lagged yield) and total rainfall had significant influence on hectrage allocation in both groundnut and sunflower crops in all the four regions of the Karnataka state. The groundnut and sunflower farmer’s behaviour showed price inelasticity of supply both in short run as well as long run in most of divisions. It indicates that non-price factors are more important and complementary to price. So, strategies that put more emphasis on non-price factors like irrigation, rainfall etc is crucial for policies promoting agricultural development. The groundnut farmers of the Karnataka state took less number of years (1.30 years) to realize 95 per cent of price effect during the whole period. The groundnut farmers of the Bangalore, Belgaum and Gulbarga took marginally less number of years that is 1.98, 1.06 and 1.24 years to realize 95 per cent of price effect than compared to Mysore division farmers. Similar observations were observed in others periods except period I, whereas Mysore division farmers took more number of years (6.71 years) to realize 95 per cent of price effect. The sunflower farmers of the Mysore division took marginally less number of years (1.13 years) to realize 95 per cent of price effect than compared to other divisions during whole period and period I. The area short run error correction dynamics of groundnut indicated that, the error correction term (ECT) of the Gulbarga, Mysore and Karnataka state were found to be significant and negative. The ECT terms indicates speed of adjustment towards long run equilibrium but it must be significant and the sign must be negative. It means that there is long run causality from the independent variables for Mysore and Karnataka state. It infers that these independent variables have influence on dependent variables such as area in the long run. The production short run error correction dynamics of groundnut indicated that, the ECT of the Bangalore and Mysore divisions were found to be significant and negative. The yield short run error correction dynamics of groundnut indicated that, the ECT of the all the divisions viz., Belgaum, Bangalore, Gulbarga and Mysore were found to be non significant and positive. The area short run error correction dynamics of sunflower indicated that, the error correction term of the Bangalore, Mysore and Karnataka state were found to be significant and negative. The production short run error correction dynamics of sunflower indicated that, the ECT of the Belgaum division was found to be significant and negative in nature. The yield short run error correction dynamics of sunflower indicated that, the ECT of the divisions viz., Belgaum, Mysore and Karnataka state was found to be significant and negative. It means that there is long run causality from the independent variables. The vector error correction analysis concluded that the groundnut and sunflower farmers’ behaviour showed price inelasticity of supply in both short run as well as long run except some divisions. It indicates that non-price factors are more important and complementary to price. The highest short run and long run elasticity of groundnut were found in Mysore division for total rainfall. It indicates the total rainfall were decision making variable for allocation of area under crop in Mysore division. The highest vector error corrections short run and long run elasticity’s of sunflower were found in Belgaum (0.25) and Bangalore (1.61) division. It indicates the farm harvest price were decision making variable to the farmers for allocation of area under crop in Belgaum and Bangalore division.ThesisItem Open Access STUDY THE INVESTMENT PRIORITIES FOR REHABILITATING THE IRRIGATION TANKS IN TAMIL NADU(PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2017) BALASUBRAMANIAN, M; SUHASINI, KIrrigation tanks serve as Common property resources, especially in the third world. Tanks have existed in India from time immemorial, it contributes significantly to agricultural production in parts of South and Southeast Asia. Especially in South India and Sri Lanka, tank irrigation has a long history and many currently used tanks were constructed in the past centuries. They account for more than one-third of the total irrigated area in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Tanks are vast in number and varied in size. Tank irrigation is one of the oldest and momentous sources of irrigation in India. This tank provides multiple uses like source of drinking water for uncountable rural and urban communities and livestock, fish culture, recharge of groundwater, control of floods etc,. Tanks have a special significance to the marginal and small scale farmers depending on tank irrigation. Tanks in the Indian context inextricably linked to the socio-cultural aspects of rural life and have historically been an indispensable part of village habitat, sustaining its socio-ecological balance. Tamil Nadu is a water deficit state. The state’s ultimate irrigation potential is low. Important sources of irrigation in Tamil Nadu are canals, tanks and wells. Most of the tanks in Tamil Nadu have become degraded due to open access, weak institutional arrangements, poor structures and break down of the local authority systems. The economic viability of tanks, given their scale, is crucial for the communities to realize their importance in improving their livelihoods. Thus it is important to study the different investment options for rehabilitating tanks for strengthening and promoting xii tank systems in drought-prone regions, and their sustainability in the long run. The specific objectives of the study were, 1. To study the overall trend about tank irrigation and rehabilitation programme in India as a whole and Tamil Nadu state in particular, 2. To assess in detail about multiple uses of tanks and its performance, 3. To study the investment options and workout the needed investment for improving the tanks. The net area irrigated in India was increased significantly from 42 million ha to 66 million ha over years. The increasing trend was significantly contributed by well irrigation which was increased from 20 million ha to 40 million ha. In contrast, it was found that the net area irrigated was almost constant in Tamil Nadu, due to the fact that the irrigation system of the state was deeply rooted and optimally utilized from ancient periods. It was observed that the usage of well irrigation system was significantly increased from 1 million ha to 1.8 million ha. Further, it was observed that the net area irrigated by canal and tanks was observed decreasing trend over years, while the decrease was about 2.30 lakh ha for canal, it was about 3.50 lakh ha for tanks. The increment in the share of well irrigated area to net irrigated area was 1.29 which increased from 38.18 per cent to 61.29 per cent. In sum, usage of tank irrigation system in agriculture had significantly declined over the past 30 years in both India as well as Tamil Nadu. The level of instability was found highest for other sources of irrigation (40.44) followed by well (21.14) and tank (20.40) irrigation systems. It was observed that the level of instability was low (6.41) for canal irrigation system which implies, the usage of canal for irrigation was almost stable over years. At all India level probability of remaining as canal irrigated area was high as 0.949 however, it alone had occupied predominant position among the sources of irrigation. It was concluded that dependency between canal and tank irrigated area is more than any other source of irrigation. Among the multiple uses irrigation use was given high value of output from paddy crop as ` 3784 per ha followed by social forestry and fisheries output was `1050 and ` 1006 per ha respectively. The average overall performance index of rehabilitated tanks is 28.06 as high as compared to 17.68 for the non rehabilitated tanks. Though performance based on multiple uses of tanks was better in the rehabilitated tanks however lot of scope to increase it. The present study was identified the investment options from respective department officials such as bund strengthening, sluice and weir repair, field channel, supply channel and water spread area constituted complete rehabilitation strategy in any type of xiii tanks. While comparing all the options, investment on sluice repair was given high priority due to MIRR of 24.78 per cent followed by 24.61 per cent of MIRR for the water spread area cleaning work. Investment on sluice repair and water spread area cleaning was given high priority compared to other options. Weir and field channel combination was the next priority which shows the importance of distribution channel to the farmers’ field in the command area of the tank. In general, either two or three combination of rehabilitation work could be adopted easier to implement in all the ways. Bund, weir, water spread area and surplus work combinations would give high benefits and MIRR. The conclusion and policy recommendation is that the area irrigated by the tanks declined after green revolution over the years and have more chances to increase the share from other sources of irrigation. Small irrigation structures (tanks) always preferable comparatively; they are sustainable, less capital intensive and user friendly and it is area specific. Benefits retrieved from tanks are significantly greater than the costs associated with it. Small scale investment on tank rehabilitation yields significantly greater returns comparatively. Multiple uses of the tanks have to be considered while assessing the performance and allocating the funds for rehabilitation of tanks. Financial outlay to be allocated on small structures and investments made for tank rehabilitation would be beneficial to the farmer-beneficiaries more than the costs associated with it.ThesisItem Open Access DYNAMICS OF INSTITUTIONAL AGRICULTURAL CREDIT IN TELANGANA(PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 2018) ARCHANA KARUNI, Y; SUHASINI, Konomy. At the time of Independence, (1950-51) agriculture was contributing major share to the GDP of about 56.5 per cent. However, its contribution was reduced to 17.5 per cent in 2015-16 at current prices. The 11th Five Year Plan focused on ‘faster and inclusive growth’, and the 12th Five Year Plan, ‘faster sustainable and more inclusive growth’ were set which signify greater attention to income inequality, regional balances, equality among socio-economic groups including provision of basic support services such as technology and irrigation infrastructure, access to credit, good and reliable seeds and improved post-harvest technology. Adoption of new technologies greatly influences the development of the agriculture which in turn increases the demands for agricultural credit. The importance of farm credit as a critical input to agriculture is reinforced by the unique role of Indian agriculture in the macroeconomic framework and its role in poverty alleviation (Golait 2007). Small and marginal farmers, who are dominating the scenario of Indian agriculture are constrained by lack of own capital and access to institutional credit to transit from subsistence to commercial production system. The amount agricultural credit disbursed in India towards all groups of farm size classes has increased, however the percent share towards semi-medium, medium and large farmers has decreased through the period. The percent share of amount disbursed to the marginal and small farmers from 1996-97 to 2011-12 has increased from (` 2815.73 Cr) 26.39 percent to (` 90721.40) 37.29 percent in case of marginal farmers. Over all agricultural credit disbursed among all size groups did not follow a particular trend which might be due to favourable policy during specific periods. PACS was the major institution distributing agricultural credit during initial study periods, while in the later period CBBs disbursed major share (36.95%) and the least share by PLDBs. The total loans disbursed for marginal farmers have recorded 32 times leap in 2011-12 when compared to 1996-97 while it was 24 times in case of small farmers. In case of large farmers total loan recorded an increase by about 12 times which is less when compared to other categories while it is 15 times in case of medium farmers. the increase of total loans disbursed across the farm size categories has shown an inverse relationship with xvi the farm size which meant the credit disbursed recorded a trend in with highest increase in case of marginal farmers and lowest increase in case of large farmers. In case of short term loans share has increased for marginal farmers from 27.9 to 36.9 per cent. there is an increasing trend in case of share of medium term loans. The access to long term loans is not on par with the semi-medium and medium farmers to the marginal and small category farmers. The total institutional credit towards Telangana has increase throughout the reference period recording ` 601.94 during 1996-97 to ` 8878.51 crores during 201112. Among the districts of Telangana, during the five year moving average period (2007-08 to 2014-15) the order of distribution of crop loans was highest in Medak (` 3538.85 lakhs) followed by Nizamabad (` 2617.18 lakhs), Mahaboobnagar (` 2493.67 lakhs) and Khammam (` 2268.52 lakhs). Agricultural term loans and allied loans were higher in Hyderabad and lowest in Adilabad. Appropriate policy initiative should be taken up to increase the allocation of funds for credit distribution through the institutional sources in the neglected backward districts and awareness has to be created among the farming community to utilize term loans. During 2014-15 91 % of agricultural loans was disbursed by co-operatives, followed by RRBs (68.6%) and public sector banks (44.71%) The institutional credit extended for marginal and small farmers resulted in increased yields of paddy, cotton and maize, which was established by the higher yields registered by loanee farmers when compared to non-loanee farmers. In paddy, credit is a positive factor increase of productivity by 0.04 per cent at 0.05 per cent probability level. Regression coefficient of credit was highly significant for cotton recording 0.19, meant that one per cent increased credit contributed to .19 per cent of productivity in cotton. Credit again contributed positively to maize yield also and was capital intensive crop. The factors significantly influencing the house hold’s access to credit were literacy, farm size, distance of the bank, annual income, experience, irrigation availability, ownership title. The ratio credit obtained per acre and working capital per acre were worked out and found to be less than one indicating the credit disbursed was not sufficient the scale finance is more than what is disbursed as credit. This has to be enhanced to have the intended benefit of crop loans realized in case of crop grown. Theils and Hirschmann index of inequality for the sample revealed an index of 0.125 0.244 respectively, inferring that there exists considerable inequality among the groups. The pattern of input utilization by loanee farmers was significantly higher in paddy, cotton and maize by all farm size groups when compared to non-loanee farmers. The loanee farmers obtained higher returns when compared to non-loanee farmers due to access to inputs by the loanee farmers. Rate of returns per rupee of investment for pooled loanee farmers in paddy cotton and maize were 1.12, 1.28 and 1.12 while it was 1.02, 0.92 and 0.92 for non-loanee farmers respectively. The income distribution measured through Gini ratio for loanee farmers was 0.39 for pooled loanee farmers as against 0.47 pooled non-loanee farmers revealing that there exists inequality between loanee and non-loanee farmers which again can be attributed to the impact of credit paving way for creating higher income. Lorenz curve reaveals that the poorest of loanee and non-loanee marginal farmers are alike but the better offs among the loanee who are able to generate substantial income are inclined towards the equality line when compared to the nonloanee farmers. The movement towards the equality line in case of small farmers is xvii greater compared to non-loanee farmers. Considering pooled farmers, the inequality does exist in case of loanee and non-loanee farmers within the group. It was concluded that if the Lorenz has to move towards the equality the performance of credit on income generation from the crops has to be improved and equity in distribution of credit is required so as to result in equity in income generation. Difficulty in preparation of pass book, delayed disbursement of loans, complicated procedure, illiteracy and lessloan than required were some of the constraints in availing institutional credit. The reasons for non-loanee farmers not availing institutional credit include lack of land passbook, illiteracy, owning land less than one acre. The dynamics of agricultural credit of the study necessitated, Improve the e-literacy of farmers to access the loans Realistic credit plans and implemented as planned to reduce category wise inequality Create favourable environment to customer farmers to obtain loans Provision of loans in form of inputs in tie up with PACS/NGOs/SHGs to be examined Government should be proactive in updating and digitalizing the land record of farmers Realistic fixation of scale of finance according to cost estimates of the cropThesisItem Open Access Management Of Risk In Dryland Agriculture - A Study In Anantapur District Of Andhra Pradesh(Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University;Hyderabad, 2002) Moses Shyam, D; Narender, IThesisItem Open Access Managing Risk In Agriculture In Semi-Arid Tropics (Sat) Of Andhra Pradesh(Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University;Hyderabad, 2007) Charyulu, D. Kumara; Raju, V.T.
