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ThesisItem Open Access An econometric analysis of pulse prices in India(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-09) Bisht, Asha; Anil KumarPulses form an important constituent of the food basket, serving as a cost-effective and nutritionally balanced rich source of protein for people, particularly in India. Although, India is the largest pulse producing country in the world, the production of these crops has shown sluggish growth over the years leading to low per capita availability and spiral in prices. Assurance of a remunerative and stable price environment for growers is one of the important aspects for increasing agricultural production and productivity. The present study was undertaken to analyse the aspects of growth, price volatility and price transmission for five major pulses in India. The study was based on secondary data for the period 1996-97 to 2016-17, further, divided into two sub periods: before NFSM (1996-97 to 2006-07) and after NFSM (2007-08 to 2016-17). The compound annual growth rate and instability in production of pulses were estimated using exponential growth function and Cuddy Della Vale Index (CDVI), respectively. The variability in prices of pulses was analysed using ratio method for inter and intra-year variability and GARCH (1, 1) model for extent of volatility. Descriptive analysis was done to examine the behaviour of MSP, FHP, cost of production and wholesale prices of pulses. Johansen co-integration test and Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) was used to study the vertical integration between wholesale and retail prices of pulses in major markets. The presence of asymmetry in vertically integrated markets of pulses was examined using Von Cramon-Taubadel model. The results revealed the low growth rate of about 1-2 per cent per annum in production of major pulses during the study period. Generally, the area has recorded lower growth than the yield for major pulses. The variability in area, production and yield of pulses were observed in the range of low to medium (<30 per cent). Production of pulses was found most fluctuating while area under pulses was least fluctuated during the period. The high fluctuations in production of pulses result in high variability in prices of pulses. The prices of pulses were observed highly volatile with no tendency to reverse to the mean. Further, the inter-year variability in prices of pulses was observed higher than the intra-year variability. The wholesale prices of pulses recorded least growth and highest variability as compared to MSP, FHP and cost of production implying that the fluctuations in pulse prices is a major concern rather than the level of prices in the economy. The study also reveals high growth rates in MSP of pulses in recent period. It shows the efforts of government to boost pulse production in the country. But MSP for pulses have been only notional and ineffective as the FHP was observed more than the MSP and farmers prefer to sell their produce in the market. Inefficiency was observed in pulse markets as wholesale and retail prices were co-integrated only in few markets in the long run while they behave independently in the short run. The presence of asymmetry in wholesale-retail price transmission in almost all the selected markets of pulses further strengthens the evidence of inefficient pulse markets. So, there is a need for regular monitoring of pulse prices, filling the information gap on prices and government intervention, when necessary, to stabilize the prices of pulses. Efforts should also be made to ensure greater market efficiency through improved physical and institutional market infrastructure. It will lead to net welfare encouraging farmer to grow more pulses.ThesisItem Open Access Growth and disparities in fertilizer consumption in major states of India(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-08) Bathla, Simran; Anil KumarFertilizer is an important production input whose use cannot be avoided to obtain maximum yield and sustainable crop production from a piece of land. India is the second largest consumer of fertilizers in the world after China. It accounted for 16.7 per cent of the world’s N consumption, 15 per cent of phosphatic and 7.2 per cent of potassic nutrients in 2015. Fertilizer consumption ranges from a low of around 55.3 kg/ha in Rajasthan to a high of 231 kg/ ha in Punjab. A host of factors like different cropping pattern, area under high yielding varieties, cropping intensity, credit advances, prices of fertilizer, etc affect fertilizer use pattern in the country. Therefore, the present study has been conducted to estimate the growth, disparities and factors influencing the fertilizer consumption. The study was based on secondary data for the period of twenty years i.e. 1997-98 to 2016-17 for the 17 selected states. In order to study trends in production, import and consumption of fertilizers descriptive analysis was done, to estimate growth in fertilizer consumption exponential growth function has been employed, to measure disparities Coefficient of Variation and Cuddy Della Vella Index has been used, and to identify factors influencing disparities in fertilizer consumption regression analysis has been done. The results of the study indicated that there is wide gap between the consumption and production of fertilizers which is met through imports. There is positive relationship between consumption of fertilizers and foodgrain production. The consumption of all three nutrients grew at a substantially higher rate during 1960s due to inception of green revolution in 60s. The Northern and Southern region accounted for more than 60 per cent of total consumption in India but it is noticed that the Eastern region has the highest CAGR for N, K and NPK while the Northern region has the highest CAGR for K only. The maximum variability is reported for N & P in Eastern region, for K in Northern region and for NPK in Western region. Northern states have low variability as compared to other states. Similarly, P& K has higher variability as compared to N and NPK. Western region and Eastern region has high growth rate with low instability for almost all the nutrients. Northern region has registered low growth rate with low instability for N, P and NPK except K. Southern region registered high growth rate and high instability for P and K. The results of regression analysis clearly indicate that non-price factors such as high yielding varieties, cropping intensity, ground level credit flow and rainfall were more powerful in influencing consumption of fertilizers compared with price factors. The inverse and significant relationship of prices existed only in Himachal Pradesh and Kerala. The strategies should be tailored in such a way that it gives importance to Eastern region as it has significant potential to increase fertilizer consumption for higher crop production. There is need to stabilize the consumption in Southern region due to high growth with high instability. The government should give due importance to non-price factors like better seeds, irrigation, credit, etc. to increase fertilizer use in the country.ThesisItem Open Access Economics of production and marketing of Mentha in Udham Singh Nagar district of Uttarakhand(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-08) Sangita; Chandra DevAgriculture is incontestably the biggest livelihood provider in Indian economy mostly in the rural areas. It not only provides food and nutritional security but also plays a significant role in employment, production, demand and supply generation activity through forward and backward linkages. India is considered to be the ancient home of perfumes and aromatic plants because it is blessed with wide variety of climate and soil condition. They are achieving significant consideration all over the world due to their vast intact economic potential, particularly in the herbal sector. Mentha arvensis (menthol mint) is an essential oil bearing plant and widely used in food, flavoure, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Among the aromatic crop, mentha is important crop as India is the largest producer, consumer, as well as exporter of mentha. In India mentha covers an area of about 0.32M ha with the production of 0.041mt in India. It contributes about 80 percent of total mint production in the world followed by China (9%), Brazil (7%) and USA (4%). The present study was conducted in Udham Singh Nagar district of Uttarakhand. The study was based on sample survey of 60 mentha growing farmers and 6 marketing intermediaries were selected from three blocks of Udham Singh Nagar district namely Gadarpur, Bajpur and Kashipur. The study aimed to achieve four objectives viz, to study the socio-economic status of mentha growing farmers, to estimate the cost and returns in production of mentha, to identify existing marketing channels for menthe and to estimate marketing efficiency of different channels and to identify the constraints faced by the mentha growers. The result revealed that majority of mentha growing farmers were in the old age group (>50 years). The average family size of mentha growers was 6.13. The majority of the farmer was literate (66.67%). The major investment items were small equipments which constitutes 52.9 percent of the total investment. Sprayer, tube well, and tractor constitutes 12.46, 7.20, 5.54 percent respectively at an aggregate level. The total cost of cultivation was estimated to be Rs.92039.62 per hectare. The net return over total cost was found to be Rs.17886.26 per hectare. The major marketing channels were channel-I (Producer-Local trader-Industry), channel-II (Producer-Local trader-Registered trader-Industry). The net price received by the farmers for the channel I and channel II was Rs. 115.83 and Rs. 1115.66 per litre. For channel-I producer’s share in consumer rupee was found to be 97.02 percent and for channel II it was 95.35 percent. Marketing efficiency was calculated 32.65 for the channel I followed by channel II i.e.20.53 respectively. It was seen that marketing channel I was most efficient than channel II. The untimely rain, high cost of input, fluctuation in prices, lack of organized marketing channels, lack of price support policy, lack of extraction unit were reported to be most sever production, marketing and infrastructural and institutional constraints faced by mentha growing farmers in the study area.ThesisItem Open Access Total factor productivity and technical efficiency in major crops: a study of western region of Uttar Pradesh(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-08) Jakhar, Anjali; Srivastava, S.K.Increasing agricultural output is essential for the growth and food security of developing countries like India, where agriculture is the main stay of the economy. The country cannot depend too much upon new and growing supplies of inputs, therefore, the country will have to depend heavily upon improvements in the productive efficiency of factor inputs for future agricultural growth. The present study was undertaken to evaluate performance of major crops of the western region and Divisions (Meerut and Aligarh) in the state of Uttar Pradesh over the period from 1995-96 to 2014-15 to examine the total factor productivity (TFP); growth and variation in TFP, area, production and productivity, and technical efficiency in major crops. Total factor productivity was estimated using Tronquist Theil index and the spatial and temporal growth rate and variation in TFP, area; production and productivity were examined using exponential growth function and Coefficient of Variation, respectively. Technical efficiency of major crops under different farm size groups was examined for the region using Stochastic Frontier production function for the year 2014-15. The results revealed that the less output produced as compared to input use in paddy crop during overall period. Declining pattern observed in indices implies that all the inputs were not efficiently used in paddy production during overall period in the region. The TFP of bajra crop indicated an increasing trend during overall period in the region as well as both the divisions, but in the Aligarh division this increase is found with higher magnitude compared to Meerut division and western region. In the western region it fluctuated during overall period due to climatic and non climatic factors. It is observed that wheat crop is more labour intensive, resulted in fluctuating total factor productivity during the overall period. The total factor productivity of sugarcane crop increased during overall period in both the divisions and as well as in western region, indicated that productivity increased with high magnitude due to efficient utilization of inputs in production process and technological support. Growth rate and variability in total factor productivity of major crops increased during overall period with high magnitude in the region and both the divisions as compared to I (1995-96 to 2004-05) and II (2005-06 to 2014-15) sub periods. No any change is found in TFP of major crops during II sub period except for wheat crop wherein TFP declined, due to decrease in fertilizer consumption (in nutrient term) during II sub period as compared to I sub period. Growth rate and variability estimation in area, production and productivity of major crops in the region observed that area and production under maize crop declined during the overall period as well as two sub periods in the region and selected divisions as compared to other crops. The results of investigating technical efficiency of the sample farm households under sugarcane, wheat and bajra crops indicated that output produced was less than the potential output to the extent of about 13 per cent, 23 per cent and 19 per cent in sugarcane, wheat and bajra, respectively. On overall basis, however, much variation observed across farm size groups. In recent past no growth in TFP of the selected crops viz., paddy, bajra, maize and sugarcane, while decline in TFP of wheat crop besides its stagnant productivity poses serious threat to the food security for the burgeoning population. This situation calls for technological breakthrough and proper implementation of farm support policies in all the major crops to increase the total factor productivity. This also suggests special attention to wheat crop, the main staple food of the western region of Uttar Pradesh, as its TFP has decreased in the recent past. Extension and infrastructural development may support farmers for application of balanced fertilizer, besides achieving potential output in major crops across the farm size groups in the region.ThesisItem Open Access An economic analysis of production and marketing of peach in Ramgarh block of Nainital district of Uttarakhand(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-07) Misra, Somya; Singh, H.N.Agriculture has been the backbone of Indian economy since times immemorial. Even today 67 per cent of the population of our depends upon agriculture and allied sectors for their livelihood. Horticulture is one of the most important sub sector of agriculture as it contributes 29.50 per cent of the total GDP produced from agriculture. Uttarakhand is the leading producer of peach sharing 51.7 per cent of the total production of the country. The state has 7855.77 ha land under peach cultivation with total production of 57933.81 Mt. Nainital is the leading producer of peach in Uttarakhand with Ramgarh block as the main pocket of peach production because of favourable climate required for the growth of peach. The study was based on sample survey research of 80 peach growing farmers selected from four villages of peach growing belt of Ramgarh and 20 marketing intermediaries were selected from Haldwani market- 5 local traders, 5 forwarding agents, 5 wholesalers, and 5 retailers. The study aimed to achieve four objectives viz., to study the socioeconomic status of peach growing farmers; to estimate the economics of peach production and financial feasibility of peach orchards, to identify existing marketing channels and associated marketing costs, margins, and marketing efficiency and to identify the constraints faced in the production and marketing of peach by the growers. The average cost of establishment of peach orchard per hundred plants was Rs. 13417.70 out of which fixed and variable cost incurred were Rs. 3037.54 and Rs10550.28 respectively. The maintenance cost during the non bearing age for overall farms was Rs. 12745.46 in the first year of plantation which consecutively increased over the years to Rs. 14174.60 in the fifth year. The total cost of maintenance of orchards was highest during 11-15 years of age as different operations such as training and pruning, fruit picking, application of plant protection chemicals was involved. Total cost with intercropping during bearing age of orchard on overall basis was Rs. 19320.60, Rs. 27068.93 and Rs. 24763.82 during 6-10, 11-15 and 16-20 years of age. The cost of production was found Rs. 1077.98, Rs.932.55 and Rs. 970.38 per hundred plants for the bearing age group. On an overall basis the yield for the three different age groups of bearing period was found to be 17.93 qtls/100 plants, 29.05 qtls/100 plants and 25.67 qtls/100 plants in 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years of age group during bearing stage.Among the three categories of farmers, small category farmers had highest yield 24.93 qtls followed by medium and marginal farmers with 23.64 qtls and 23.34 qtls of production per hundred plants respectively. The gross returns obtained from peach orchards per hundred plants was Rs 53790.00, Rs. 87150.00 and Rs. 77010.00 during 6-10, 11-15 and 16-20 years of age-group, respectively. Payback period was found to be 3 years in case of including intercropping for all the three categories of farms. BC ratio was calculated as 2.09 on an overall basis thus showing profitability of the peach plantation. NPV was highest in case of small famers accounting to Rs. 171956.90.The major marketing channels were channel-A (Producer-Consumer), channel-B (Producer-Local trader-Consumer), channel-C (ProducerForwarding agent- Wholesaler- Retailer- Consumer), channel-D (Producer-Forwarding agent- Wholesaler (distant market) -Retailer - Consumer). The net price received by the farmers varied between Rs. 2952.78 /qtl to Rs. 3580.65/qtl among different channels. For channel-A producer’s share in consumer rupee was found to be 97.34 per cent, for channel B it came out to be 85.94 per cent followed by channel-C where it was reduced to 59.60 per cent. Marketing efficiency was calculated 36.59 followed by channel B (6.11) and channel C (1.48) respectively. It was seen that there existed an inverse relation between net marketing margin and marketing efficiency. The problems faced by the peach grower were non- availability of inputs at proper time, lack of quality planting material lack of availability of finance at proper time, scarcity of irrigation. Marketing problems associated with peach growers were high marketing cost, high post harvest losses and price fluctuation for the produce.ThesisItem Open Access An economic analysis of rural women empowerment through SHG promoted enterprises in Pauri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-07) Rawat, Madhu; Anil KumarToday even after 70 years of independence, rural India is far behind urban India in every indicator of progress. This should be a huge concern when 68 percent of India continues to reside in the rural areas. Rural India is grilling under the pain of poverty and the most susceptible victims are rural women. The worthy contribution of women is seen with half an eye. Thus, an efficient and accelerated rural women empowerment movement is the hour’s need. And Self Help Groups (SHGs) are well deserved propagators of this movement. The present study was conducted in Pauri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand to examine the various dimensions of women empowerment through SHG promoted enterprises. Identification of the factors responsible for participation in the SHGs, estimation of costs and returns of the enterprises, measurement of the empowerment level and identification of the problems faced were the main objectives of the study. Primary data were collected for the year 2017-18 through the survey of sampled SHG members. Multistage sampling technique was followed to select 60 SHG members, 30 from each of the purposively selected blocks of Pauri and Dugadda. A sample of 30 non-SHG members was also selected for indepth analysis. Simple statistical tools like average, percentage, CACP cost concepts were used along with binary probit model and the three point continuums scale. The results reflected that majority of the respondents were middle-aged literate women with middle-sized families of 5-7 members, small landholding size of 0.31 ha and nominal annual household income of Rs.117662.00. The probit model estimation showed that probability of participation in the SHG programme increased with the increase in the family size i.e. a positive relationship while it decreased with the increase in age or landholding size or value of productive assets or presence of sources of non-farm income in the household i.e. a negative relationship. The enterprises promoted by the majority of SHGs in Pauri Garhwal district were dairy, mushroom and vegetable production. Mushroom cultivation turned out to be most profitable enterprise (returns per rupee invested was 1.90) followed by dairy (1.80) and vegetable cultivation (1.33) in the area. Majority of women were observed moderately empowered after joining SHG programme in terms of social, economical and personal dimensions of human life. The most prominent socio-economic problems faced by SHG members were lack of education and training, conflicts among members, lack of inputs, low product prices and lack of local buyers and market information. The SHG programmes should have long term income stabilization goals for rural areas as high agriculture dependency causes frequent fluctuations in the income levels of agrihouseholds. A shift from high risk agri-enterprises to non-agri enterprises can enhance income security. Government mediated marketing of products and enhanced training facilities for better utilization of resources can give a new face to the SHG movement.ThesisItem Open Access Production and export performance of maize: a study of India.(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-06) Geetha, R.S.; Srivastava, S.K.Maize globally known as queen of cereals is one of the most important cereals crops of the world in general, third most important crop after rice and wheat in India in particular. The present study tried to analyse the performance and determinants of maize production and exports from India with the following objectives; i. To estimate the growth and instability in area, production and productivity of maize, ii. To work out the costs of and returns from maize production across farm size groups, iii. To examine the growth pattern, instability, trade direction and potential of maize exports from India, and iv.To identify the determinants involved in production and exports of maize. Growth (CAGR) and instability are estimated for pre as well as post WTO period separately as well as for whole period from 1981 to 2016 using exponential growth function for area, production, productivity and export of maize. Cost and returns for maize production worked out by employing CACP cost concepts, Trade direction by Markov-chain analysis which employs transition probability matrix and relative comparative advantage (RCA) index for trade potential for the period from 2001-2016, determinants have been worked out by log linear regression for the post WTO period i.e. from 1996-97 to 2015-16, Augmented-Ducky Fuller test is use for checking stationarity of time series data for determinants of production and export. As Karnataka is the highest maize producing state in India multistage stratified random sampling is used to select 160 farmers across different farm size groups to collect primary data to assess cost and returns across farm size groups. The significant higher positive growth rates in area, production and productivity of maize are found during post-WTO period in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. India registered significant growth rate in area, production and productivity during post WTO as well as overall period except in case of area in pre WTO period. In overall, the highest growth rate in area, production and productivity of maize has found in Tamil Nadu among the major maize producing states. The instability analysis reveals that there is not much fluctuation in time series data with respect to area, production and productivity of maize at country level, while Tamil Nadu is the only state to show high instability with respect to production and productivity of maize. In overall, cost of cultivation (Cost C3) of maize in Tumkur and Davanagere districts as well as state of Karnataka has been found to be Rs. 48449, Rs. 52724 and Rs. 50714 per hectare, respectively, during 2017. The cost of cultivation has been found to be the highest at large farms and lowest at marginal farms. The net returns per hectare over Cost A1 found positive across farm levels in selected districts, while net returns over Cost C3 been negative. Despite of the fact that the returns obtained by the maize growers covering all explicit costs as well as part of implicit costs. Because of its wider adaptability to climatic conditions, prevail over there, maize cultivation continues in the farming business.In post WTO period, the export quantity, value and unit value grew significantly at the rate of 38.74, 42.12 and 2.43 per cent per annum, respectively but remained in the category of high instability in quantity as well as value. Markov chain analysis reveals that Nepal exhibited a strong preference for Indian maize, followed by Bangladesh. It is found from RCA index that India maize trade found inefficient in the years 2001 to 2003, 2005 to 2006 and 2015 to 2016. All the possible factors such as area sown, irrigated area under maize, average rainfall, human labour, animal labour and MSP, affected the maize production positively in India except fertilizers which has negative relationship. The variable area sown has found positive and significantly affecting the maize production in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Irrigated area is found to be key factor in increasing maize production in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Tamil Nadu. Rainfall played major role in determining maize production for the states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Variables such as export price which affect the export inversely and lagged production having positive direct effect emerged as important factors determining maize export from India. As rainfall is one of the major factor affecting maize production as well as use of low quality seeds by farmers specially marginal and small, the study suggests to enhance and to stabilise the production through increased productivity by providing technical know -how and other supporting measures. Diversification of geographical concentration can be achieved by export promotion policies which should be in line with consistent growth of maize exports with low instability.ThesisItem Open Access Growth, instability and yield gap analysis in potato cultivation in Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-07) Pant, Devesh Kumar; Singh, VirendraIndia holds second position in potato production in the world and is considered as a potential substitute for food security after cereal crops. In India, Uttarakhand occupies thirteenth position in potato production. Pithoragarh district is one of the major potato producing districts of Uttarakhand, with majority of the farmers having marginal land holdings and poor resource base. In spite of the fact, some farmers are achieving higher yield levels than others, leading to a yield gap. Since the fluctuations in area, production and productivity are observed; an attempt was made to estimate the yield gap and its causes behind, growth and instability in area, production & productivity and to figure out the factors leading instability. The study was based on primary data, collected from 90 sample farmers, as well as on secondary data collected for the period of twelve years from 2004-05 to 2015-16. To examine the socio-economic status of potato growers, simple descriptive tools and one-way ANOVA technique was used. The determinants of estimated yield gap were identified using regression analysis. The tools used for attaining rest objectives of the study were exponential function - for growth rates, coefficient of variation - for instability estimation and decomposition analysis - for ascertaining factor causing instability in potato production; and regression analysis for determining the factors responsible for area and productivity instability. The results revealed that high level of literacy i.e. 86.67 percent was observed in the study area, with average age of farmer as 48.92 years, which varied from 55.37 years at low hills to 43.27 years at high hills. The average size of family was 5.77 persons per family, consisting of about 37 percent males, more than 36 percent females and about 27 percent children and the highest adult male and female members were found in low hills. Potato, common bean (rajma), wheat and mustard were the first four principal crops in the study area. Potato was observed as crop of prime importance, occupying 34.93 percent, 27.67 percent and 22.80 percent of gross cropped area at high, mid and low hills, respectively. The cropping intensity at high, mid, low hills and aggregate level was 131.97, 201.56, 203.43 and 173.27 percent respectively. The average size of operational holding at high, mid, low hills and aggregate level was found to be 2.60, 2.09, 1.60 and 2.10 acres per farm, respectively. At aggregate level, area under potato was observed to be 1.04 acres per farm, which varied from 1.20 acres per farm at high hills to 0.74 acres at low hills. The average number of livestock reared on potato growing farm was 14.04 animals per farm, which varied from 21.50 animals per farm at high hills to 9.27 animals per farm at low hills. Out of total livestock reared, the number of goat was the highest with a magnitude of 10.44 goats per farm, accounting for 74.37 percent of total livestock, which varied from 18.00 goats per farm at high hills to 5.83 goats per farm at low hills. The average annual income by potato growing households from all sources was Rs. 406655 per farm, Rs. 386332 per farm, Rs.357504 per farm and Rs. 382831 per farm at high, mid, low hills, and overall farms, respectively. The major proportion of farm income was contributed by potato and other crop enterprises. The yield gap at farm level so estimated was 34.79 q/ha, which varied from 39.13 q/ha at low hills to 27.84 q/ha at high hills. ‘Use of certified seed’, ‘number of intercultural operations performed’, ‘expenditure on plant protection measures’, ‘quantity of fertilizers used’ , ‘frequency of agriculture extension service’ were emerged as main determinants of yield gap. The growth rates of area, production and productivity were 5.13, 8.22 and 2.84 percent, respectively. Decomposition analysis revealed that area effect is the major source of potato production growth in the district. Instability in production was higher than that in area and productivity. About 99 percent of production instability was due to area and productivity instability factors. Among the attributable factors of area and productivity instability the lagged price relative of potato with the competing crop common bean and lagged rainfall emerged as significant factors. The major policy implications emerged from the study are (1) assured supply of certified seeds and adoption of modern cultivation practices are pre-requisite for enhancing potato productivity. (2) the extension services should be made more accessible to the farmers with an aim to acquaint them with new ideas and practices; (3) improvement in location specific potato production technology is much needed in the study area, which is only possible through further research activities; (4) potato pricing policy is need of hour for attaining desired levels of area and productivity and to minimize the effect of yield losses due to natural factors on their income.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative economics of drip and conventional irrigation and assessment of externalities in groundwater use in areca nut cultivation in Tumkur district of Karnataka(G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar - 263145 (Uttarakhand), 2018-06) Giridhar, B.J.; Singh, H.N.This study is conducted in eight villages randomly selected from two blocks, namely Gubbi and Madhugiri of Tumkur district, Karnataka. Attempt is made to characterize the socioeconomic status, costs and returns of groundwater irrigation, water use efficiency and externalities in areca nut cultivation in drip and conventional irrigated methods on randomly selected 80 farms pertaining to the year 2016-17. The study is based on survey of 80 areca nut growing farmers comprising of drip irrigated 40 farms and conventional irrigated 40 farms are selected from eight villages of Tumkur district. Descriptive statistical tools, costs and net returns, OLS regression technique, and annual externality costs are calculated for achieving the objectives. The average operational holding is found to be 6.19 acres. Areca nut is the dominant horticultural crop and it occupied 56.54 per cent area to the total cropped area. Whereas, coconut, mango and banana occupied 20.37 15.93 and 7.26 per cent area to the total cropped area. Average annual income of farm households from different sources is found to be Rs. 4,49,995.50/- in which share of farm and non-farm income in total income is 61.00 and 39.00 per cent, respectively. The major costs under drip irrigated farms are machine, planting material, manure and fertilizers and drip installation costs contributed to 33.82, 30.24, 24.80 and 10.92 per cent of total costs, respectively. Similarly, the major costs incurred under conventional irrigated farms are machine, planting material, and manure and fertilizers contributed to 16.27, 37.19, and 38.00 per cent of total costs, respectively. Net returns per acre-inch of water used in case of drip irrigated farmers is highest with Rs. 3,80,321/- per farm compared to Rs. 1,84,046/- per farm in case of conventional irrigated farms. This result signifies that drip irrigated farms are 206.64 per cent more economically efficient than the conventional irrigated farms. Groundwater extracted per functional well in drip irrigated farms is 32 acre-inch, whereas, it is 115 acre-inch in conventional irrigated farms. The average age of bore wells is 6.48 years in drip irrigated farms which is comparatively more than conventional irrigated farms with 4 years of age. The annual negative externality cost was higher in conventional irrigated farms (Rs. -4737.28/-) while it is Rs.-2468.32/- in drip irrigated farms. It can be concluded that conventional irrigated farms has more number of bore well failure. On the basis of findings of the study, major policy recommendations emerged are: it is necessary for the department of agriculture and horticulture to sketch out an intensive outreach program for expanding the drip irrigation facility in plantation and vegetable crops. Addition to it, there is strong extension support from Govt. officials is also needed to educate farming community to avoid wastage of water during irrigation and to encourage them for efficient water use by installation of drip irrigation. The government should provide subsidies to build water storage structures in order to save water efficiently and promote bore well recharging techniques to the farmers in order to prevent bore well failures.