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ThesisItem Restricted Prototype Feasibility Evaluation of Tractor Operated Green Pea Crop Harvesting System(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Gill, Gagandeep Singh; Dr. Rajesh GoyalIn Punjab, pea crop is cultivated in an area of 43,860 ha. Due to lack of mechanization for harvesting and threshing of green peas, farmers have to depend on labour for picking of pea pods. To increase the area under pea cultivation, there is a need of mono picking varieties of pea crop and machines for harvesting and threshing of pea crop. To access the mono picking characteristics of pea variety (PB-89), studies on physical characteristics (plant height, pod maturity, number of pods per plant, weight of pods per plant, weight of peas per pod, angle of repose and bulk density of green pea crop) with different sowing dates was observed. Efforts has been done by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for harvesting, threshing and depoding of green pea crop by developing tractor operated green pea crop harvester and thresher cum depoder. The developed tractor operated green pea crop harvester consists of header, conveyors, hydraulic motors & actuators, supporting roller and wiping roller, chain and sprockets unit and jack mechanism for fitting with tractor. As the green pea harvester moves in the field the rotating reel strips out the green pea crop and wiping roller conveys the green pea crop to conveyer. The pea crop harvester was evaluated in terms effective field capacity (ha/h), fuel consumption (l/h), crop left over by machine (%), machine throughput capacity (kg/h), damage to crop (%) and efficiency of machine (%) at different independent parameters like forward speed 1.26 km/h (S1) and 1.90 km/h (S2), reel rpm 240 rpm (RR1), 200 rpm (RR2) and 160 rpm (RR3) and number of fingers 18 (F1) & 25 (F2) mounted on reel of header. Forward speed showed significant effect on fuel consumption, effective field capacity, crop left by machine and efficiency of machine. The maximum efficiency (83.62%) of green crop harvester having minimum damage (2.29%) and minimum crop left in field (14.04%) was observed at a forward speed of 1.26 km/h (S1), number of fingers mounted on reel 25 (F2), and reel rpm 200 (RR2). Physical characteristics of pea variety shows that PB-89 variety cannot be harvested once as it matures in stages.ThesisItem Restricted Optimization of process parameters for refractance window drying of sliced white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)(Punjab Agricultural University, 2024) Chitesh Kumar; Dr Manpreet SinghThe present study was conducted to optimize the process parameters for refractance window drying of mushroom slices. Mushroom slices were dried using refractance window drying system for the optimization of process parameters. Three independent variables at three different levels were selected viz. water temperature (70, 80 and 90 oC), slice thickness (2, 4 and 6 mm) and KMS concentration (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 %). Out of which, highest drying rate was observed for 2 mm slices dried at 90 oC which decreased with decrease in temperature and increase in slice thickness. Optimization was done using RSM Box-Behnken design (BBD) after which it was confirmed that water temperature of 90 oC, slice thickness of 6 mm and KMS concentration of 1.01 % gave the overall best physico-chemical parameters. The values of responses for dried mushroom slices were, total colour difference: 28.66, total phenolic content: 25.15 (mg GAE/100g dw), bulk density: 0.096 g/cc, antioxidant capacity: 86.23% and protein content: 3.18%. Optimized sample from refractance window drying was then compared with three stage convective tray drying and solar drying. It was observed that pretreated samples dried using refractance window drying had highest drying rates, lowest moisture, highest protein content, bulk density and antioxidant capacity. Also, the total phenolic content was maximum for pretreated solar dried sample which had no significant difference from pretreated refractance window dried sample. Overall colour of both, dried and rehydrated refractance window dried product was also better than the three-stage convective drying and solar drying. Refractance window dried samples were also found to have the highest rehydration ratio and coefficient of rehydration followed by solar dried samples and three stage convective drying samples.ThesisItem Restricted Development and Evaluation of UAV-based Variable Rate Applicator for Fertilizers(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Dhillon, Prabhsimran Kaur; Verma, AseemExcessive and continuous chemical fertigation has ill effects on human and animal health, and the environment and it also increases agricultural production costs. Application of the right amount of nitrogen (urea) in crops is vital for enhanced productivity. With the application of variable rate application technology, the right dosage of nitrogen (N) at the spot could be specified exactly as per the crop requirement. Aerial application technology for spraying liquid fertilizers allows more stable growth of plants and decrease pollution in the environment. Drones/UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), fitted with automated pre-programmed GPS (Global Positioning System) systems, can be used effectively for this purpose. In present study, a UAV-based Variable Rate Applicator (VRA) spraying system for the application of fertilizers was developed and evaluated by creating NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetative Index) based field maps and a decision-making algorithm. The VRA system consists of a microprocessor (Raspberry pi), ESC (Electronic Stability Control), BEC (Battery Eliminating Circuit), and GPS (NEO-M9N). The algorithm for the system was developed using Python language (Version 4.0). The field imaginary was collected using UAV mounted multispectral camera (RedEdge MX) and thereafter, processing of images to generate NDVI maps was done in Pix4Dmapper (version 4.0) software. The field evaluation of the VRA was conducted for the wheat crop (Variety: PBW1) at two crop growth stages (42 DAS, 52 DAS) and four nitrogen levels (N1: Healthy, N2: Moderate, N3: Low and N4: Very low) as independent parameters and NDVI, spray coverage (%), droplet density (droplets/ cm2) and in swath spray deposition (µl/cm2) as dependent parameters. There were found no significant difference between spray coverage, droplet density, and in-swath spray deposition at 5% level of significance and a significant difference was found between the NDVI values at different crop growth stages at 5% level of significance (p<0.05). It was also found that significant difference between NDVI values before and after spray at crop growth stage I at 5% level of significance. Similarly, at crop growth stage II, there were a significant difference between NDVI before and after spray at 5% level of significance. The spray coverage (%) at crop growth stages I and II were non-significantly different at respective nitrogen application levels. The droplet density (droplets/cm2) and in-swath spray deposition (µl/cm2) for crop growth stage I and II was non-significantly different at respective nitrogen levels at 5% level of significanceThesisItem Embargo Effect of cold plasma treatment on quality parameters of spinach(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Goswami, Kritanjal; SandhyaInvestigations were carried out to study was the effect of cold plasma treatment on spinach quality parameters. Design and development of a plasma setup with an adjustable top portion and strips for adjusting the discharge gap that operated at a 25.00 kHz frequency and a discharge voltage range of 32.00 kV to 47.00 kV. The treatment chamber was made of 8 mm thick glass, aluminum foil and pyrex glass were utilized as dielectric barriers, a switch-mode power supply (SMPS) was used to convert AC power to DC, a voltage controller was in charge of controlling the voltage output, and an EHT component serving as a transformer boosted the voltage. By altering exposure period, discharge gap, sample weight, and output voltage, independent variables were manipulated to optimize the cold plasma system, yielding a desirability value of 0.824. Optimal conditions included 20.00 g sample weight, 3.50 cm discharge gap, and 4.00 min exposure, resulting in desired outcomes: 92.39% moisture content, color value of 7.82, texture at 9.38N, chlorophyll content of 2.94 mg/g, total phenol content of 38.55 mg GAE/g, and microbial load of 2.79 log10 CFU/g. Cold plasma-treated and controlled spinach, stored in both ambient and refrigerated settings, packaged in PP and LDPE, showcases prolonged shelf life, improved moisture retention, color, texture, chlorophyll levels, microbial safety, and flavor preservation in comparison to control spinach. Cold plasma treatment effectively upholds spinach quality in PP packaging, elevating visual appeal, nutrition, and overall freshness for up to 3 days at ambient temperature and 9 days in refrigeration. An economic analysis, considering fixed and variable expenses, estimates a Rs. 57,200/- return over variable cost for the developed cold plasma system post-expenditure. It's important that this cutting-edge method showed little adverse effect on the sensory and nutritional qualities of fresh spinach while appreciably extending its shelf life.ThesisItem Embargo Standardizing supplemental lighting for improved strawberry cultivation in soilless media under protected cultivation(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Pardeep Kaur; Mahesh Chand SinghA study was carried out at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to standardize the supplemental lighting for improved strawberry cultivation in soilless media inside a naturally ventilated greenhouse. For supplemental lighting, full spectrum LED grow lights were used. The experimental treatments included three levels of supplemental lighting viz. 235, 169, 132 μmol m-2s-1, and 3 levels of photoperiod viz. 12, 14 and 16-h. The treatments were replicated thrice in a factorial CRD layout. After transplanting, the strawberry plants were fertigated with fresh nutrient solution throughout the growing season using drip irrigation system. Electrical conductivity and pH of the nutrient solution were maintained in the range 1.5-2.7 dSm-1 and 5.5-6.5, respectively. Crop related data (plant height, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf area index, etc.) were recorded at weekly interval. Climatic data (mainly light, temperature and relative humidity) were recorded continuously at a 5-minute interval through development of a low-cost IoT-based real-time climate monitoring system. The fruit related data (fruit diameter, fruit weight, number of fruits and yield per plant) were recorded at the time of each harvesting. The quality parameters viz. titratable acidity, total soluble solids, total sugar, reducing sugar, ascorbic acid and phenol content were analysed twice in the growing season (7th February and 25th March, 2022). The performance of strawberry was significantly affected by time-differential supplemental lighting in terms of its effects on different plant growth parameters, fruit parameters and yield. The supplemental lighting of 132 μmol m-2s-1 for a photoperiod of 16-h recorded the highest fruit yield of 450.0 g/plant with an average value of 408.9 g/plant. The results indicated a significant increase in yield, WUE and FUE of Camarosa strawberry with decrease in supplemental lighting from 235 to 132 μmol m-2s-1 and an increase in photoperiod from 12 to 16-h. The average benefit-cost ratio (B:C) was obtained as 2.35 and 2.27 with and without subsidy, respectively. Supplemental lighting of 132 μmol m-2s-1 for a photoperiod of 16-h resulted in highest B:C value of 2.74 with 50% subsidy and 2.68 without subsidy. Thus, subjecting strawberry plants to light in the range of 362.5-430.6 μmol m-2s-1 including supplemental light of 132 μmol m-2s-1 for about 16 hours in a day is desired to record the optimal plant growth, fruit yield and quality of camarosa strawberry, when cultivated in soilless media inside a naturally ventilated greenhouse.ThesisItem Embargo Evaluation of tapering fertigation schedules for dripirrigated potato crop(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Koundal, Nitesh; Thaman, SudhirA research experiment was carried out at University Seed Farm Ladhowal of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during the Rabi season of 2021-2022 to study the effect of basal fertilizer dose and tapering fertigation schedules on growth and yield attributes of the drip-irrigated potato crop. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD), consisting of seven treatments with three replications. All treatments had the equivalent recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), i.e. N: P: K :: 150: 50: 50 kg ha-1. The treatments comprised seven fertilizer application schedules, viz. T1: FYM + 25% RDF as basal + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 75% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.05X; T2: FYM + 25% RDF as basal + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 75% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.1X; T3: FYM + 25% RDF as basal + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 75% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.15X; T4: FYM + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 100% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.05Y; T5: FYM + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 100% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.1Y; T6: FYM + fertigation in 18 tapering splits with 100% RDF, tapering at a difference of 0.15Y; T7: FYM + fertigation with 20 % RDF in 7 equal splits + 80% RDF in 13 equal splits (Control). X and Y are 18 equal splits of 75% and 100% RDF, respectively. The same irrigation depth was applied to all treatments on the basis of the Penman-Monteith method. The data of the field experiment was analysed statistically using CPCS1 software of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, PAU, Ludhiana. Different tapering fertigation schedules had a significant impact on yield parameters, viz., average tuber weight and tuber yield per plant. The treatment T2 recorded the highest average tuber weight (28.4 g) and tuber yield per plant (317.6 g). Tuber yield in treatment T2 (24.4 t ha-1) recorded significantly higher tuber yield than other treatments except for treatment T1. The tuber yield in treatment T2 was 15.2% higher than in treatment T7 (control).ThesisItem Open Access Structural Stability Analysis of Naturally Ventilated Polyhouses(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Lovepreet Singh; Kaushal, ArunThe research work on structural stability analysis of naturally ventilated polyhouses was carried out at Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. There were total 12 treatments which were combination of four different sizes of polyhouses i.e. 560 m2 (T1-T3); 1008 m2 (T4-T6); 2080 m2 (T7-T9); 4000 m2 (T10-T12), with three design wind speeds 100 km/hr, 150 km/hr and 200 km/hr respectively. Truss members, columns and foundation stability analysis was carried out by considering dead loads, live loads and wind loads. Support reactions were computed on truss and column joints. Member forces were computed by using force method. The economic analysis was carried out by computing benefit cost (B/C) ratio and payback period for raising capsicum under stable structures. For every 17 set of truss members four members (two in compression (small arc) and two in tension (truss bracings)) failed in treatments with 150 and 200 km/hr wind speed while two members (in compression, (small arc)) failed in treatments with 100 km/hr wind speed. Minimum structural GI pipe material requirement for structurally stable polyhouses was under treatment T1 (2407 kg) and maximum under treatment T12 (19550 kg). The maximum benefit cost ratio was obtained in treatment T10 (1.77, 2.33) and minimum was in treatment T3 (1.36, 1.84) with no and 50% Government subsidy, respectively. The minimum payback period was obtained in treatment T10 (3.29 years, 1.26 years) and maximum in T3 (7.54 years, 2.19 years) with no and 50% subsidy, respectively. For the structurally stable naturally ventilated polyhouses as the size increases the benefit cost ratio increases, while the payback period decreases and for wind speed it is vice-versa.ThesisItem Restricted Land Use and Land Cover Change Analysis in District Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar of Punjab Using Geospatial Technology(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Sohal, Jaskaran Singh; Kaushal, ArunLand use and land cover (LU/LC) is observed to be the primary factor of environmental change on a worldwide scale. Timely and accurate information on LU/LC is very important for efficient planning and management activities. The present study on “land use and land cover change analysis in district Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar of Punjab using geospatial technology” was carried out at the Department of Soil and Water Engineering, PAU and PRSC, Ludhiana from 2021-2023 to classify LU/LC and to analyse decadal change in the study area from year 2012-2022. Satellite data of IRS P6 LISS-III (2012 , 2022) and IRS LISS-IV (2022) were analysed for LU/LC mapping using visual interpretation techniques. The study area was divided into seven LU/LC classes i.e.: agriculture, built-up, waterbody, forest/tree clad area, riverine sand, algae bloom and fallow land /barren land/waste land in which agriculture covers maximum while riverine sand covers minimum area. In decadal change the alterations encompass positive trends such as increased agricultural area (31.29 %), as well as negative trends including decreased algae bloom (59.82 %). Overall accuracy for LISS-III 2012, LISS-III 2022 and LISS- IV 2022 were 88.3 %, 86.66 % and 93.3 %, respectively with kappa coefficient value as 0.86, 0.83 and 0.91 , respectively. Hotspot areas with major changes were seen in Block Nawanshahr with major increase in built-up area, as well as in Block Saroya and Balachaur of study area with major decrease in Forest area. Highresolution data of IRS LISS-IV gives better accuracy as compared to IRS P6 LISS-III.ThesisItem Embargo Development and evaluation of Battery assisted Eweeder for narrow row crops(Punjab Agricultural University, 2023) Gurkanwal Singh; Khurana, RohinishThis study presents a comprehensive investigation into the development and performance assessment of an electric weeder tailored for efficient agricultural weed management. The primary focus of the research was to develop and evaluate an electric weeder to be used in narrow row crops. The weeder's innovative design encompassed features enabling weed control in narrow row crops, adjustable rotor speeds, and adjustable depth of weeding blade. The weeding mechanism of weeder was powered using a 1000W 48V BLDC motor, traction was provided using a hub motor of 250W and 48V. A li-ion battery of 25Ah 48V was used as a energy source for both the motors. Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the weeder's operational capabilities across a diverse range of parameters. The study revealed substantial correlations between rotor speed, forward speed, and moisture content with both weeding efficiency and plant damage. An upward trend in weeding efficiency was consistently observed with higher rotor and forward speeds, highlighting the potential benefits of increased operational intensity. In contrast, plant damage demonstrated an escalating trend at elevated rotor and forward speeds. Plant damage also increased with decrease in moisture content. Battery performance was also comprehensively evaluated, with discharging and charging times serving as critical operational metrics. Optimal parameters for maximum weeding efficiency and minimal plant damage were identified as a forward speed of 3kmph, rotor speed of 300 rpm, and a moisture content of 18%. These parameters not only contributed to substantial labor savings of 72.9% but also resulted in noteworthy cost reductions of 50.7%. The developed electric weeder exhibits potential for weed management in narrow row crops, offering enhanced efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The study's comprehensive insights contribute significantly to the field of agricultural mechanization. through alternate sources of power on the farm.
