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ThesisItem Open Access Optimizing Lateral Depth and Spacing for Subsurface Drip Irrigated Rice-Wheat Cropping System under Conservation Agriculture Through Simulation of Water and Nitrate Movement(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Bajpai, Arpna; Kaushal, ArunThe research study was conducted at Borlaug Institute for South Asia, Ludhiana and Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, Punjab to optimize lateral depth and spacing for subsurface drip irrigated rice-wheat cropping system under conservation agriculture through simulation of water and nitrate movement during 2017-20. Experiments were laid out in randomized block design with eight treatments, (six drip irrigated (T1-T6), which were combination of lateral spacing X emitter spacing X dripline buried depth) and two control treatments (T7-T8) with three replication i.e. T1 (67.5 X 30 X 0 cm), T2 (45 X 40 X 0 cm), T3 (67.5 X 30 X 15 cm), T4 (45 X 40 X 15 cm), T5 (67.5 X 30 X 20 cm), T6 (45 X 40 X 20 cm), T7 (conventional flood irrigation method) and T8 (flood irrigation method with conservation agriculture). Grain yield and water productivity were maximum in treatment T4 (Wheat, 6.513 t/ha, 3.832 kg/m3 and Rice, 8.178 t/ha, 1.203 kg/m3 ) and minimum in T7 (Wheat, 5.620 t/ha, 1.406 kg/m3 and Rice, 7.410 t/ha, 0.492 kg/m3 ). Statistically T4 treatment was significantly at par with T6 treatment and higher than all other treatments for both rice and wheat crops. Most uniform soil moisture and nitrate movement were observed under T4. HYDRUS-2D model showed successful performance with Nash-sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient of 0.885 and coefficient of determination as 0.906. Economic analysis showed that treatment T4 (B:C-3.286) was economically viable and significantly higher than treatment T7 (B:C-3.157) only with 95% of drip irrigation subsidy.ThesisItem Restricted Simulation of Nitrate-N movement through subsurface drainage system under cropping conditions(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Dar, Mehraj U Din; Singh, J. P.The study was conducted to simulate the NO3-N movement through subsurface drainage in a field under cropping conditions using DRAINMOD-NII model and for predicting optimum depth and spacing for minimum nitrate leaching. The nitrogen balance was estimated using DNDC model for the area installed with the subsurface drainage system at Thehri village Muktsar district of Punjab. Both the models of DRAINMOD NII (v. 6.1) and DNDC (v.9.5) (Denitrification and Decomposition model) were calibrated and validated for the 2 years study period from 2018-2020. The reliability of the models was evaluated by comparing observed and simulated values of drain flow, nitrogen loss, water table depths and relative yields for the rice-wheat cropping system. The validated DRAINMOD-NII model was used to predict the optimal depth and spacing for minimum nitrate losses. The nitrogen balance for the area under subsurface drainage system was estimated using DNDC model for rice-wheat cropping system. The statistical performance of DRAINMOD-NII model was carried out and the range of statistical parameters viz, root mean square error (RMSE), Nash Sutcliffe modeling efficiency (NSE) and correlation coefficient (R2) were obtained to be 0.12 to 9.66, 0.47 to 0.88 and 0.53 to 1 respectively during the calibration and validation periods. The values of statistical parameters for DNDC model viz; RMSE, NSE and R2 ranged from 6.8 to 8.5, 0.78 to 0.88 and 0.84 to 0.90 respectively during the calibration and validation periods. The optimal depth and spacing of subsurface drainage system for the study area was obtained to be 1.3 m and 42 m respectively using DRAINMOD-NII model for minimum nitrate loss. The overall nitrogen balance was found to be -99.44 kg N ha-1 yr-1(negative) and 69.1 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (positive) for rice and wheat crops respectively using DNDC model. DRAINMODNII model and DNDC model performed a better simulation, and could be used for efficient nitrogen management in the region.ThesisItem Restricted Development of customized automated fertigation system for soilless media in protected cultivation(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2021) Pandey, Kusum; Singh, K. G.A study was undertaken for the development of a low-cost customized automated fertigation system for the closed soilless system under protected conditions and tested for cucumber crop grown in different soilless media under naturally ventilated polyhouse at Dr. S. D. Khepar Laboratories of the Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. This system consisted of mainly four units i.e. controller unit, sensor unit, fertigation unit, and pipeline unit. The controller unit comprises the programmable logic controller (PLC) which is used to automate the whole fertigation process i.e. to prepare and supply the fresh nutrient solution to the crop and reuse the drained nutrient solution after making the balance solution through the filtration from the polyhouse. The developed system was calibrated for dozing pumps, EC, pH sensors precision analysis, and time taken by the dozing pump with their respective treatments. The experiment was set in a factorial split-plot design included 9 treatments each under the developed automated and conventional fertigation systems with three fertigation levels viz. T1 = 100% fresh solution, T2 = 90% fresh solution with 10% leachate and T3 = 80% fresh solution with 20% leachate. Cucumber hybrid Multistar were planted under three different substrates of cocopeat i.e. S1 = 50% cocopeat with 50% cocochips, S2 = 70% cocopeat with 30% cocochips and S3 = 100% cocopeat in three replicates during three growing seasons. The performance of the system was measured by crop growth parameters (vine length, leaf area index, stem diameter, leaf chlorophyll content), yield parameters (fruit weight, fruit length, fruit diameter, yield per plant), and quality parameters (vitamin C, total phenol content, antioxidant capacity, total chlorophyll content, firmness). The economic analysis was carried out for a developed automated system with 50% subsidy on polyhouse and without subsidy and compared with conventional fertigation system. Customized automated fertigation system recorded significantly higher 17.1%, 10.8%, and 12.1% fruit yield per plant as compared to the conventional fertigation system in seasons 1, 2, and 3 respectively. Out of three different growing media, all the plant growth, yield, and quality parameters were recorded significantly higher under substrate S2 followed by S3 and S1. Among the fertigation treatments, T1 recorded significantly higher all the plant growth parameters as compared to T2 and T3 while there was no significant difference found in the fruit yield and quality parameters. For a customized automated fertigated system, BCR was found 2.16 & 2.19 (with subsidy) and 1.73 & 1.77 (without subsidy) for years 1 and 2. While, for conventional fertigation system, BCR was 1.89 & 2.0 (with subsidy) and 1.45 &1.59 (without subsidy) for years 1 and 2 respectively. Overall, the developed customized automated fertigation system crop grown under substrate S2 and with fertigation treatment T3 is recommended for achieving a statistically similar yield.ThesisItem Open Access Design and Evaluation of Automated Drip Irrigation System(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2018) Sandeep Kumar; Jain, A.K.An automated drip irrigation system (ADIS) was designed and evaluated in collaboration with JISL, Jalgaon, (Maharashtra). To optimize the design parameters of the system, two types of drip irrigation systems were considered, viz. wired based automated drip irrigation system (IS1) and wireless automated drip irrigation system (IS2). The experiment was carried out for two seasons on tomato crop (Abhinav, Syngentha) using two water sources viz. ground water and treated fruit processing waste water. The study revealed that the quality parameter of tomato was better for treated fruit processing water (WQ2) in comparison of ground water (WQ1) quality. Based on the optimization of ADIS, it was found that the irrigation system and water quality significantly affect the plant height, number of leaves, number of branches, number of fruits and yield. The wireless based irrigation system (IS2) with treated fruit processing waste water (WQ2) was found as best combination. The maximum tomato yield of 37.79 ton/ha was obtained with wireless based irrigation system with pressure compensating drippers (PC) for treated fruit processing waste water (WQ2). Economic analysis has been done to check the commercial viability of the automatic drip irrigation system. The benefit cost ratio for wired based irrigation system was found to be as 1.44 without subsidy and 1.77 with 50 percent subsidy, whereas, benefit cost ratio for wireless irrigation system was found to be as 1.56 without subsidy and 1.90 with 50 percent subsidy. Breakeven point for wired based irrigation system has been achieved after 14 years without subsidy and 10 years with 50 percent subsidy, whereas, breakeven point for wireless based irrigation system has been achieved after 10 years without subsidy and 5 years with 50 percent subsidy. Based upon the above study it was found that wireless irrigation system is more economical and best suited automated drip irrigation system to get higher net returns as compared to wired based irrigation system.ThesisItem Open Access Modeling Microclimate of Naturally Ventilated Greenhouse under Cropped Conditions in Soilless Media(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2018) Mahesh Chand Singh; Singh, J.P.A study was undertaken to develop mathematical models for simulating microclimate of a naturally ventilated greenhouse under cropped conditions and develop the optimal operating microclimatic conditions for drip fertigated cucumber crop in soilless media. Cucumber crop was grown in coco-peat in a split plot design in three replicates during two successive growing seasons of 2016-17. The treatments included three levels of fertigation in main plots viz. F1=100.0%, F2=85.0% and F3=70.0% of complete nutrient solution under optimal microclimatic conditions. Sub-plots included cultivars viz. V1 (Kafka), V2 (Multistar) and V3 (PBRK-4). Mathematical models for standardizing the temperature of greenhouse cover, air, plant and growing media were developed, calibrated and validated in Simulink MATLAB with a mean model efficiency and coefficient of determination values of 94.7% and 0.96 respectively. Mathematical models of sensible and latent heat balance were developed to predict vertical air temperature profile and vapour pressure and solved analytically. Models for predicting saturation vapour pressure (SVP), actual vapour pressure (AVP) and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) from internal and external climates were developed and solved in Simulink MATLAB. Further, models for predicting temperature of air, leaf, plant root-zone and relative humidity were also developed from external climate. The average fruit yield was obtained in the range of 2.4-3.5 kg plant-1 and 3.3-4.4 kg plant-1 with and without fruit thinning having lowest and highest yield under treatments F3V3 and F1V2. Crop water use efficiency (CWUE) was found in the range of 60.4-86.3 kg m-3 and 84.5-108.9 kg m-3 with and without fruit thinning respectively. The average benefit cost ratio (BCR) was computed to be 1.91 and 1.54 with and without subsidy respectively without fruit thinning. However, BCR decreased by 23.7% and 23.8% with and without subsidy respectively with fruit thinning. The developed models were calibrated and validated separately for both growing seasons and a good agreement was observed between the model predictions and observed data. Thus, the developed models successfully simulated the greenhouse microclimate. Based on microclimate modeling, the desirable range of Tapc, TL, Trz, Eapc, Irad and VPD were worked out to be 22.0-27.0°C, 20.5-25.1°C, 16.9-22.9°C, 60.0-85.0%, 100.0-169 Wm-2 and 0.53-1.10 kPa respectively for optimal plant growth and development.ThesisItem Open Access Impact of resource conservation interventions on water and sediment yield in a watershed of Shivalik(PAU, 2015) Yangchan, Jigmet; Jain, A.K.Soil and water are considered as one of the world‟s limited and non-renewable resource. Soil erosion by water is being increasingly recognized as a problem across the world. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of resource conservation interventions on water and sediment yield in a watershed. Morphometric analysis of Sukhna Lake watershed covering Chandigarh, Punjab and Haryana was carried out by using GIS technique. This analysis shows that the basin has a dendritic pattern with fifth order stream. Bifurcation ratio, drainage density, drainage texture, elongation ratio and relief ratio value of the watershed confirm that the geologic structures do not distort the drainage pattern. The area was impermeable subsurface having sparse vegetation, hilly relief and steep slop es with very fine texture cause prone to soil erosion. Impact analysis for six scenarios have indicated that in the initial period (1958-70) rainfall was less but runoff percentage was 22% of rainfall, no soil conservation measures were present due to which heavy soil loss of 150 ton/ha/yr, where as in 2013 rainfall was high but runoff percentage significantly decreased to 7.8% of rainfall due to increased number of structures over 190 as a result the sediment yield also decreased to 5 ton/ha/yr. This study shows that an adequate soil conservation measure exists, as result creations of new strictures are not required. In order to retain the sediment yield, the structures need regular maintenance. High evaporation rate in the region causes drying of the lake as the capacity has reduced from 10.74 million cubic meter (MCM) initially to 5.24 (MCM) at present, almost 50% of the lake‟s capacity reducing the depth of lake. In case of afforestation preference should be given to drought resistant species and deep rooted plantation. However the sediment yield has reduced to 5 ton/ha/yr but from the catchment of 4284 ha it is a huge amount settling down in the lake and reducing its capacity. In such case periodic desilting has to be taken up once in 2-3 years. To maintain the required water level in Sukhna Lake on a sustainable basis throughout the year, strategies must be made to divert the water from the other adjacent catchments.ThesisItem Open Access Optimal Ground Water Management In South-West Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University ;Ludhiana, 2001) Aggarwal, Rajan; Sondhi,S. K.ThesisItem Restricted Modelling the impact of climate change on groundwater resources in central Punjab(PAU, 2013) Samanpreet Kaur; K.G. SinghA study was planned to assess the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources in Ludhiana district under PRECIS A1B climate change scenario by linking the outputs of climate, soil-water-vegetation and groundwater models using GIS. Bias correction of climate data was done by correction functions, developed using modified difference, approach at daily time scale for rainfall and at monthly time scale for Tmax and T min. The methodology consists of development of simulation zones by overlaying soil, drainage, canal and landuse thematic maps in GIS and estimating water balance components using CropSyst and well defined norms. The groundwater draft for individual simulation zones was computed on the basis of landuse, irrigation requirement and rainfall conditions. The spatial distribution of recharge and groundwater draft was mapped to GIS and was provided as input to groundwater model. The results showed that temperature and rainfall would be increased by 2.4°C, 315 mm in MC (2021 - 2050); and 5.1°C and 465 mm in EC (2071-2098), respectively. During kharif season increase in RF would be 28.0% in MC and 52.0% in EC compared to that in PTS (1971-2010). The corresponding values during rabi would be 82.3% and 88.6%, respectively. As a consequence of increased precipitation, the irrigation requirements in MC and EC would decrease by 46% and 45% during kharif; and 21% and 34% in rabi, respectively. However, the potential groundwater recharge would be reduced by 23.1 and 4.2 per cent in kharif, and increased by 39.1 and 79.6 per cent in rabi during MC and EC, respectively. The average groundwater levels would decrease by 2.2 m in 2050 and increase by 4.8 m in 2098, compared to base year of June 2000. The results presented here should be interpreted as trends and not as accurate quantitative predictions of the hydrological changes as there are numerous sources of uncertainties associated with climate change prediction.ThesisItem Restricted Optimal Design Of Furrow Irrigation System(Punjab Agricultural University; Ludhiana, 2005) Garg, Sunil; Gulati, H.S.
