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ThesisItem Restricted Economic Evaluation of Resource Conservation Technologies and their Carbon Footprints on Crop Production in Punjab Agriculture(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Simarjot Kaur; Sidana, Baljinder KaurThe present study was conducted to evaluate the economics of resource conservation technologies and their carbon footprints on crop production in Punjab agriculture. The study comprised of both primary and secondary data. In order to accomplish the specific objectives a sample of 120 farmers (60 from paddy-wheat crop rotation and 60 from cotton-wheat crop rotation) from two districts of Punjab namely Mansa and Sri Muktsar Sahib were selected through multi-stage sampling technique. The secondary data regarding emission factors for various inputs used in the calculation of carbon footprint were compiled from various published sources. The RCT adopters were segregated into three scenarios i.e. PDSR+WCT, PDSR+CRM+WMT and PPTR+CRM+WMT for paddy-wheat crop sequence. Similarly, RCT adopters identified for cotton-wheat sequence were CCT+WMT and CIPM+WCT. On the one hand, use of paddy chopper or bailers or rackers for complete removal of residue increased the cost of paddy straw management by 17 times than non-adopters. On the other hand, incorporation of paddy stubble with super seeder/happy seeder used for wheat sowing reduces expenditure on land preparation to the tune of 26 per cent due to no preparatory tillage in subsequent wheat crop for farmers following paddy-wheat crop sequence. Overall, there was a saving of 6 to 8 per cent in variable cost by DSR adopters whereas it increased by 8 per cent for managing residue on PTR farms. As a result, net returns decreased on PPTR+CRM farms by 3 per cent and PDSR+CRM farms by 1.5 per cent. CIPM reduces expenditure by 13 per cent on agrochemicals in cotton giving 14 per cent more profitability than non-adopters. Paddy crop is the major carbon emitter, emitting 7 times more carbon than wheat and cotton crops. Carbon footprint from burning of paddy residue came out to be 7 t CO2eq/ha whereas this was 0.16 - 0.32 t CO2eq/ha for adopters of CRM. PPTR farms emitted 1.7 t CO2eq/ha of methane (CH4) emissions which come out to be 16 per cent of total GHG emissions, while these were absent on DSR farms. The study found that PDSR+CRM+WMT and CIPM+WCT came out to be the cost effective and environmental friendly RCTs for paddy-wheat and cotton-wheat crop rotation. Financial help should be provided to farmers for motivating them to adopt RCTs and timelyavailability of machinery for ex-situ management for reducing the carbon footprint.ThesisItem Embargo Contract farming of floriculture in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, 2022) Mishra, Yashi; Jasdev SinghThe present study was undertaken to examine the status of floriculture, cost and return of flower seed cultivation under contract farming and problems faced by farmers and contracting agencies. To accomplish the objectives of the study, both primary and secondary data was collected. Primary data was collected from sample contracting firms and farmers through personal interview method. The results of the study revealed that area under floriculture and production of flowers in India and Punjab has increased significantly in past two and half decades. Area under contract system of flower cultivation (for seed production) accounted for about 15 percent of GCA on the sample farms. Results revealed that cultivation of flower crops for seed production is a highly labour-intensive and this component alone constituted 50 per cent of the total cost. Gross return received by respondent farmers from overall flower seed crops was Rs.81185 per acre and return over variable cost and return over total cost turns out to be 50.72 per cent (Rs.41178/acre) and 24.08 per cent (Rs.19551/acre), respectively. Though cost of cultivation of flower crops was significantly higher in comparison to alternative wheat crop but on account of higher gross return the flower crops yielded much higher return over variable cost (65.44%) than that obtained from wheat crop. High production risk, high cost of cultivation, high rejection rate of output, irregular payment and low contract prices were main problems faced by contract farmers. Major problems faced by contract firms include mixing of poor quality output by farmers, problematic behaviour of farmers and farmer‟s unwillingness to follow the prescribed practices. For large scale adoption of floriculture, strengthening of extension system, mechanization of cultural operations of floricultural crops and provision for crop insurance under contract were the measures suggested by study. In order to protect contract farmers against irregular payment and manipulation of terms by contract firms, written form of contract with provision for legal measures should be made compulsory.ThesisItem Restricted Women labour participation in major vegetables cultivation in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Roy, Pritam; J. M. SinghWomen's contributions to agriculture have been neglected and under valued. Very few scientific ventures have been made in our economy to examine the actual participation of female labour in vegetable crop production. The study was conducted with specific objectives to know the input-output pattern in major vegetables grown with an emphasis on women labour participation, to compare the remuneration received by both male and female labour and to bring out the problems encountered by them and recommendation of suitable policy measures. By keeping into account the most recent area under vegetables; potato, pea and cauliflower being major vegetable crops, were selected for the study. The study was carried out in selected blocks of Jalandhar, Amritsar and Hoshiarpur districts with a sample size of 30 vegetable growers and 20 female labours for each crop, thereby making a sample of 150 respondents. According to the study's findings, female labours participate in selective operations like; harvesting and grading during potato cultivation and constitute only 23.24 per cent out of total labour used, in pea cultivation female labours participate during picking and hoeing operation and constitute 31.64 per cent of the total labour used and during cauliflower cultivation, female labours participate in transplanting, earthing up and harvesting operations and constitute 46.22 per cent of total labour used. The study also find that daily wage difference prevails between male and female labour, even the contractual wage rate is also low for female labour compared to male labour. Most of the female respondents suffered because of the seasonality of agriculture labour (91.67%) followed by dissatisfaction with the wage received (88.33%) and not having any ownership right of resources, especially land (85%). According to the study's findings, it is recommended that awareness should be created through proper extension services to men who are cultivators and be made aware of the value of women's labour in agriculture and provide them with fair financial recompense. Also suitable policy measures should be made to give female labours land rights for their empowerment and to increase the enrollment and completion rates in education, across all levels.ThesisItem Embargo Study on Women Empowerment among Farm Households in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jain, Mehak; Sharma, ShaliniWomen in India are the backbone of the society and important resource in agriculture and rural economy. They make essential contributions to the agricultural development, allied, household activities and pursue multiple livelihood strategies. Participation of women in agriculture varies from region to region in Punjab. So, the present study was an attempt to measure women empowerment and gender parity among farm households with specific objectives: (i) to study socio-economic profile of women respondents in selected farm households (ii) to measure empowerment of women among selected farm households (iii) to find out gender parity in selected households (iv) to identify challenges faced by women and suggest the way forward. The present study was conducted in three agro-climatic zones of Punjab state namely sub-mountainous zone, central plain zone and south-western zone. One district was randomly selected from each zone i.e. Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana and Ferozepur. Two blocks from each selected district and three villages from each block were selected randomly for the purpose of present investigation. From each selected block, forty households based on probability proportionate to three categories of farm household i.e. small, medium, large were selected randomly. Total sample size was of 240 farm households. The study found that one third of farm women were either illiterate or lowly educated, majority were not gainfully employed, were engaged in household chores (89.7%). The study found that still 12 per cent of respondents had no mobile phones of their own and half (50.8%) of farm women were not able to do any banking operations Also, majority (93.3%) of respondents had no ownership of land. Study disclosed edge of zone1 farm women in human resources followed by zone 2 and zone 3 but did not find significant difference amongst different farm size categories. Large farm households had better level of material resources. Zone 1 had high level of social resource followed by zone 2 and zone 3 and small farm women had an edge over the large farm women in this resource. In agency aspect too significant zonal association was found with zone 1 leading in it. Psychological wellbeing had significant association with farm size category while physical wellbeing showed zonal association. Among household challenges, patriarchal norms (2.04) was found major challenge (Rank I) while at community level farm women were deprived of legal rights (rank I) and unsupportive community ethics (rank II). Lack of capacity building avenues (rank I) was the challenge at market level. Government intervention is strongly needed especially in central and south western zone for training of farm women in alternative skills to promote their self-employment and financial security and hence their empowerment. Agency aspect of women need to be strengthened through education, inclusive cultural norms and family supportThesisItem Restricted Magnitude and determinants of indebtedness among farmers in border areas of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jaspreet Singh; Kingra, H.S.The present study analyzes the magnitude and determinants of indebtedness among farmers in border areas of Punjab in accordance with purpose and source of debt across various categories of farmers. A total sample of 80 farmers covering four blocks and eight villages of Pathankot and Tarn Taran districts of Punjab were taken to meet the stipulated objectives of the study. There are about 5 persons in the farm family. Irrigation with tube-wells is the predominant practice. Various land categories i.e. marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farms depicted average operational area of 1.75 acres, 3.34 acres, 7.68 acres, 14.05 acres and 29.40 acres, respectively. The income derived from farm activities was around 75 per cent of the total household income (Rs. 973618). Overall, 84 per cent of the farm households were indebted in border areas of Punjab and average debt per farm household was estimated at Rs. 6.33 lakh. Institutional sources are the foremost source of debt with around 90 per cent share in total household debt. Amongst the institutional sources, government banks were the major source with 48.99 per cent of the total debt. Out of the total debt, 67 per cent was used for productive purposes. As evident from the findings, farmers usually take loan at rate of interest of 5 to 7 per cent. In conclusion it is implied that one-third of the farm households took loan to meet social and consumption purposes. The share of non-institutional loan is the highest among smaller farm size categories. Hence, cooperative societies should be promoted to reduce the dependency of farmers from non-institutional sources of credit.ThesisItem Open Access Marketing and Processing of fruits in Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Jalthariya, Kamal Kishor; Jasdev SinghThe present study was conducted to investigate the various marketing and processing related aspects of fruits in Punjab. Personal interview method was employed to collect the primary data from the sample respondents comprising farmers, pre-harvest contractors, wholesalers, retailers and the processing units. The study revealed that marketed surplus of kinnow and malta, the major fruits of sample farmers constituted 98.20 per cent and 96.06 per cent total production of the respective fruits. As compared to channels in which producers themselves sold their produce in the market, in this channel (pre-harvest contract system) the observed price spread was the highest and the producer’s share in the price paid by consumer for the average quality fruits was found to be the lowest. The producer’s share in consumer rupee was the highest when they sold their produce directly to the retailers and this channel was observed to be the highly efficient. The location of majority of fruit processing units is away from the main fruit producing areas and these are found to be concentrated in the industrial hub of the state. The processing capacity utilized by processing units found to be very low and inversely related to the size of unit. Both, local as well as distant markets were the major sources of procurement of fruits by the processing units and relatively low quantities of fruits were sourced directly from the farmers. Problems of insect disease, inadequate irrigation facility, lack of processing unit in nearby area, and lack of local markets were the major constraints faced by the farmers. Inadequate supply of variety of fruits, low quality of fruits, lack of demand of processed food and lack of utilization of waste were the main constraints faced by the processing units. In order to bring the desired diversification of state agriculture, the problems faced by fruit growers and processing units need to be addressed on the priority basis through employing suitable technological interventions and policy tools.ThesisItem Open Access Comparative study of economics and resource use efficiency of cotton in north India(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Avaldeep Singh; Raj KumarCotton is one of the most important crops grown in India, and it plays an important role in the country's economy. The present study was conducted to investigate the comparative economic analysis and resource use efficiency of cotton among different states in India's north cotton zone. This analysis is based on secondary data (1980-81 to 2019-20) and primary data for the 2019-20. During the last four decades, the growth in area under cotton depicted adeclining trend in Punjab with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of -1.9 per cent, while it increased significantly in Haryana (CAGR 1.4%) and Rajasthan (CAGR 0.7%). The primary information was gathered from 120 farmers in major cottongrowing districts of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. Among these states, land rent was found to be highest in Punjab and lowest in Rajasthan. The total cultivation costsof cotton were found to be Rs.24721, 26644, and 22772 per acre in Haryana, Rajasthan, and Punjab, respectively. The per acre returnsover variable costs in Punjab were highest (Rs.18282), followed by Haryana (Rs.18168) and Rajasthan (Rs.15284). There wasunderutilization of human labour and quality pesticidesin Punjab, human labour in Haryana, and; seed and human labour in Rajasthan. Therefore, increasing the use of these resources would result in higher gross returns. The over utilization of irrigation, potash and nitrogen was found in Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana, respectively which have a negative impact on gross returns from cotton cultivation. The most severe production constraints were faced by cotton growers were insect/pest damage, lack of quality seed, and lack of quality inputs in all these states. Inadequate prices of cotton and its fluctuations are the major marketing constraints reported by farmers.ThesisItem Open Access Infrastructure, functioning and labour scenario in regulated markets of Punjab(Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 2022) Lovepreet Singh; Goyal, MiniAgricultural regulated markets have been playing a pivotal role in the overall economic development of a country. Therefore the present study has been designed to examine the status of infrastructure, functioning and labour scenario in the regulated markets of Punjab. The stratified random sampling technique was used to select the sample. The study was conducted in three agro-climatic zones of Punjab during the year 2019-20 and from each zone three markets i.e. small, medium and large markets were selected. A sample of 10 farmers and 10 labourers were taken from each market. For the selection of e-NAM markets, one market was randomly selected from each zone and a sample of 20 farmers was selected from each market. The study highlighted that number of regulated markets was increased from 1980-81 to 2019-20. Consequently there was a decline in average area and number of villages severed per market which in turn ensured betterment in number of regulated markets in the state. Growth in the number of regulated markets resulted in increase in the procurement of wheat and paddy in the state. Results of infrastructure development index revealed that large markets were equipped with better infrastructure facilities. Problem of lack of space and inadequate covered sheds were the major problems faced by famers. The efficiency of the regulated markets were computed and it was found that large markets were financially and managerially more efficient due to higher income, better management of income, employees, marketed surplus and produce. Markets were not organizationally efficient on the basis of staff strength and distance traveled by farmers. Mandi labourers got total employment for 297 days during a year including 126 days in regulated markets with income of Rs 57261.34 per annum and 171 days in other than market works by earning Rs.45059.64 per annum. In Punjab, about 2.16 lakh farmers, 2288 traders and 8376 commission agent were registered with e-NAM. It was found that e-NAM markets had a positive impact on prices. The factors like availability of electronic equipment’s followed by operational holding, age were the most influential determinants to participate in e-NAM system.ThesisItem Open Access Study of the economic effects of the Punjab canal colonies(University of Leeds, 1925) Bajwa, Kapur SinghTo readers interested in the material progress of the Province, no introduction seems necessary for so fascinating, a subject as the "Enonomic effects of the Punjab Canal Colonies. The origin, growth and development of the Canal colonies is an interesting and surprising miracle of the 20th century -a miracle which has given rise to an important trading city like Lyallpur, the capital of the Lower Chonab Colony. The development of the Lower Bari Doab Colony has an importance of its own as it is the youngest of all its sister colonies and as most of us have seen the change that has come over the new Bar. One can see what it was like less than ten years ago as one passes in the Karachi mail through the desert skirting the youngest Canal Colony, not a vestige of cultivation on either side: only sand hills and a barren plain, dreariness unreclaimed save by the vivid mirage of water and trees. How this blight and hideousness of land, was redeemed by the miracle of the 20th century and what are the consequences of this change form the scope of my thesis. I have chosen what appears to me to be the notable features and grouped round them the circumstances which led to them and the consequences which came from them. It has not been possible, however, to mention all the noteworthy points in the development of different colonies and my apologies are, therefore, due for any partiality or neglect which I may appear to have done. I have deliberately given much attention and large space to Chapter LV (on means of communications) as the prosperity of colonies very much depends upon the progress and improvements effected in their means of communication and I feel therefore no hesitation in quoting A. Smith, that "improvement in the means of transport is the greatest of all the agricultural improvements". Chapter V (on population is meant to indicate the relation between migration of population and canal irrigation. Chapters VL & VII (dealing with depressed classes and the janglis respectively) are important both from social and economic point of view. The importance of Chapter VIII (unrocognised assets of the Canal Irrigation) lies in its exposition or a few important effects which are generally overlooked by a superficial observer. Chapters XI (experiment of co-operative sale) is very important from the present day stand point and the Chapter XIII dealing with the problem or indebtedness has much bearing upon the Chapter XI. The latter is a remedy of the economic ills of indebtedness diagnosed in the former. As for my appendices, I may submit that they form an integral part of my thesis and therefore deserve a careful perusal. Appendix "A" is based on an inductive enquiry into the village No. 369 near Cora, district Lyallpur. The usefulness of Appendix "B" lies in its reference to sufferings and hardships undergone by early colonists and also in its real story of a Sufaid Posh grantee.
