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ThesisItem Open Access Seed invigoration and dormancy studies in snake gourd(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2005) Mohan, N; KAU; George, T E“Seed invigoration and dormancy studies in snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina L.)” were carried out at Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur during 2004-2005. This study aimed at standardizing seed invigoration techniques in snake gourd that can break dormancy and improve seed vigour and studying the impact of invigoration techniques on storability as well as field performance. Among the different invigoration treatments tried, mechanical scarification by way of seed rupturing was the most effective one followed by acid treatments (5N H2SO4, 5N HCl and 5N HNO3 for 10-20 minutes), hot water soaking (400 C for 5 minutes) and treatment with 1 % KNO3 for 12 hours. These treatments could break the dormancy of snake gourd seeds from the freshly extracted state onwards and improve the seed vigour. From the fourth month onwards, untreated seeds also showed higher germination. Treatments such as water soaking, GA3 250 / 500 ppm, NAA 100 ppm, 0.5 % NaH2PO4 and 0.5 % KH2PO4 did not show any positive influence on dormancy release. It is evident from the present study that dormancy in seeds of snake gourd is due to water impermeable seed coat and this is naturally broken only four months after extraction and if the seeds are to be used immediately after extraction or till three months afterwards, an invigoration treatment is inevitable. An insight in to the changes in the anatomy of seed coat thickness revealed the differences in the layer wise coat thickness of invigorated seeds, stored seeds and fresh seeds. The stored seeds had lesser coat thickness as in the case of invigorated seeds. In contrast, untreated fresh seeds had higher coat thickness and this acts as a mechanical barrier for water imbibition. The study on moisture imbibition rate revealed that the seeds subjected to mechanical scarification imbibed water more rapidly after 24 hours and resulted in higher and early germination and high speed of release of dormancy. The stored seeds as well as seeds invigorated with acids and hot water also displayed high imbibition rate due to reduced seed coat thickness and opening of specialized cracks in seed coat. On the other hand, untreated seeds showed lesser water imbibition. There was a gradual reduction in quality parameters like germination percentage, speed of germination and vigour indices during storage of invigorated seeds. This indicates that the invigorated seeds can be supplied to farmers only for immediate use and they are not amenable to storage beyond one to two months. Electrical conductivity of seed leachates was significantly influenced by the invigoration treatments during the period of storage. The EC values showed increasing trend with increase in duration of storage. This confirms the usefulness of electrical conductivity study as a rapid and effective indicator of seed deterioration during storage. The seeds subjected to mechanical scarification and seeds from previous Kharif crop were found to have maximum field emergence and the seeds treated with 1 % KNO3 recorded highest fruit set, earliness, higher yield, maximum fruit weight as well as higher seed yield followed by stored seeds from previous Kharif crop. All other treatments were also superior in field performance when compared to untreated fresh seeds. Thus it can be seen that the initial advantage gained through seed invigoration has been sustained to a larger extent in the field performance as well.ThesisItem Open Access GxE interaction of semi-erect cowpea genotypes(Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, 2005) Ampily, M; KAU; Salikutty JosephExperiments on “G x E interaction of semi-erect cowpea genotypes” were carried out at the Department of Olericulture, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur during Kharif, Rabi and summer 2004-2005. Fifty accessions of cowpea collected from various parts of Kerala were used for the study. The study was aimed at identification of stable high yielding and dual purpose semi-erect cowpea accessions over different seasons. With regard to yield and yield contributing characters, summer season was found to be best. The performance of all the accessions during Rabi was inferior as compared to Kharif and summer. The accessions VS-1177, VS-1025 and VS-1179 performed better with a green pod yield of 9.5 tonnes, 6.9 tonnes, 6.2 tonnes per hectare respectively and a seed yield of 3.3 tonnes, 2.1 tonnes, 2.3 tonnes per hectare respectively tonnes per hectare. Along with these three accessions during summer the accessions VS-1172 and VS-1170; during Kharif the accessions VS-1174 and VS-1042 during Rabi the accessions VS-1175 and VS-1015 were also superior. The pest and disease infestation scenario during cultivation showed that the accession VS-1111 had a pod borer infestation below 2 per cent and can be recommended as a resistant variety. The coreid bug infestation was maximum during summer followed by Kharif and was nil during Rabi. None of the accessions were found to be resistant to coreid bug. The incidence of aphids was lowest during Kharif followed by summer and Rabi. The accessions VS-1230 and VS-1231 were free from aphid attack during all the seasons and can be considered as resistant varieties. There was no incidence of anthracnose during Rabi season. Considering all the seasons, the accessions VS-1294, VS-1047, VS-1171, VS-1286 (Varun), VS-1276 (Kanakamony), VS-1179, VS-1213, VS-1160, VS-1263, VS-1032, VS-1266 (Kairali) and VS-1248 were free from anthracnose. The incidence of collar rot was lowest during summer followed by Kharif and Rabi. There was no incidence of mosaic during Rabi. The study on analysis of variance revealed the presence of considerable variability for most of the characters among the genotypes. The magnitude of PCV was higher indicating a higher degree of environmental fluctuation in the case of green pod yield per plant (42.13), number of pods per plant (35.75) and seed yield per plant (35.33). GCV also revealed the same pattern of genetic variability as shown by the PCV for all the characters. High heritability of more than 60 per cent was noticed for characters like 100 seed weight followed by pod length, seed yield per plant, green pod yield per plant, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and number of clusters per plant. The estimates of genotypic correlation coefficient were higher than the phenotypic correlation coefficient. Considering the G x E interaction, the accessions VS-1177, VS-1025 and VS-1179 were highly adaptable for green pod yield and seed yield per plant during all the seasons. Hence these accessions can be recommended as dual purpose, adaptable semi-erect cowpea for large scale cultivation throughout the year in Kerala.ThesisItem Open Access Export performance of tea industry in south India in the context of economic liberalization(Department of Rural Banking and Finance Management,College of Co Operation Banking and Management,Vellanikkara, 2005) Radha Mani, A; KAU; Molly JosephThe present study entitled “EXPORT PERFORMANCE OF TEA INDUSTRY IN SOUTH INDIA IN THE CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC LIBERALIZATION” was conducted with the following objectives. 1) To analyse the export performance of tea industry in South India during pre and post liberalisation period in terms of volume and direction; and 2) To examine the adequacy of policies, financial and other institutional supports in order to comply with the liberalisation agreements regarding Indian tea industry. Secondary data have been used to study the trends in area, production, productivity and export of tea in South India along with price behaviour and examination of competitiveness. Time series data were collected from various publications of Tea Board for the period 1981-82 to 2002-03. An informal discussion with the exporters of Coimbatore Tea Trade Association was undertaken to examine the adequacy of policies, institutional and financial supports and constraints faced by the exporters. The trends in area, production, productivity and export of tea in South India as also all India were estimated using the kinked exponential model. Coppock’s instability index, residual based index and coefficient of variation were used to find out instability. The quinquennial averages, Annual Average Growth Rates were also supplemented to find the growth in above variables. An analysis of area under cultivation, production, productivity and export performance of tea industry at the global level for the period 1981 to 2002 points out to some fundamental issues facing the Indian tea industry. The area under cultivation and production have been increasing in absolute terms throughout the period. The AAGR has been positive for both for all years except during 2002 for production. But the productivity, which stood at a relatively higher level in the early 1990s, has drastically declined, the AAGR being negative since 1991. The exports have declined tremendously even in absolute terms, the AAGR sliding to –11.6 per cent in 2001. The trends in area under cultivation of tea revealed that there had been a significantly higher growth rate at the all India level during the post liberalisation period. It has to be noted that the growth rates were above the national level in South India in the post liberalisation period, which is contributed by Tamil Nadu. The instability analysis revealed that coefficient of variation was relatively higher for South India compared to all India. Among the tea producing states of SI, Tamil Nadu occupies the first position during pre and post liberalisation period. Except for Kerala, all other states showed significant positive growth rates in production. Residual based index and Coppock’s index indicated that the instability in production is not very high. There has been a continuous decline during the post liberalisation period in Tamil Nadu and SI and the highest is in Karnataka. For Kerala, it was almost stagnant during this period. The Instability index estimates exhibited that variability was higher in all the South Indian states. The trend analysis in exports of tea from all India showed that there was a significantly higher decline compared to marginal decline in exports from SI. It may be noted that in the post liberalisation period, increase in export quantity from SI was higher than all India. In value terms, the country recorded a high growth rate in the pre liberalisation period. Though in the early 1990s the exports registered a positive growth rate, there was a significant decline in the late 1990s i.e. the post WTO period. Similar trend was observed in the case of South Indian tea exports. The instability analysis revealed the higher instability in case of South Indian exports compared to all India, both in terms of volume and value. Regarding the destination of exports, the share of U.S.S.R remained high during both the pre and post liberalisation period. It has not shown any change, except the decline in case of A.R.E, U.K and Sudan. The industry is also catching up in the Poland, U.S.A and U.A.E markets. The analysis of imports showed that there was a steady increase in the imports from 1992 to 2003 in terms of quantum as well as value. The price analysis showed that there was a sharper decline in the post liberalisation period in case of domestic prices. The domestic and international prices were following the same trend except in the late eighties. The magnitude of decline was lower in the case of international prices during the study period compared to domestic prices. The instability analysis for the whole period as well as sub periods showed lower variation in international prices than in the domestic prices. Among the South Indian markets, high instability was noticed in the case of Coonoor market. Compared to all India prices, the South Indian prices were showing higher instability. The results of NPC values are less than one during post liberalisation period when compared to pre liberalisation period, which depicted the existence of comparative advantage for tea. The taxation policies denoted that the present taxation structure is not feasible for the tea producers in general when compared with other producing nations. The GOI renewed the Tea (Marketing) Control Order in 2003, removing several shortcomings of the earlier Tea (Marketing) Control Order, 1984, which enriched the Tea Board to exercise stiff regulation including the provisions of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. UPASI has taken initiatives like Tea Futures Exchange with Forward Marketing Commission (FMC) and Consortium of Tea Producers in potential upcountry markets. For promoting tea exports, the Tea Board was established in 1953 under the Tea Act, 1953 during First Five Year Plan. During 1980’s the stress is given towards liberalisation of trade. From 1st August 1998, India unilaterally removed all Quantitative Restrictions (QRs) on imports of items from SAARC countries in order to promote trade among SAARC countries by South Asia Free Trade Area (SAFTA). As of 28th December 1998 a free trade agreement was concluded between India and Sri Lanka, which would result in zero import tariffs for most of the commodities on both sides by 2007. QRs were removed from 1st April 2000 for tea. The developmental allowance given under the Central Income Tax Act, 1961 is raised from the present level of 20 per cent to 40 per cent. The budget announced in 2002-03 increased the customs duty on tea and coffee to 100per cent. With a view to provide stability in terms of income for the small growers, from 2003-04 onwards, Government announced a Price Stabilization Fund of Rs.500 crore for the benefit of tea as well as other plantations. The budget 2004-05 has reduced the customs duty of 50 per cent to five per cent over some of the plantation machinery including that of tea. While reviewing WTO response strategies, it can be seen that the removal of QRs facilitated import of cheaper teas from Vietnam, Indonesia, China and Sri Lanka. The tea plantations are also faced with import threats from SAARC countries because of the lower CIF values. It would be desirable for the tea plantations to ensure that the tariff quota system is avoided. Otherwise it is difficult to insist the use of tariff quotas by the MFN principle. It is to be advised that GOI may adopt SSM for the import sensitive plantation crops like tea. The Board is also trying to preserve the Intellectual Property Rights of the growers of various forms of tea in foreign markets through Geographical Indication. To check the inflow of low quality substandard teas, there is a need for strict enforcement of PFA, ISO 3720, and ISO 9000 series and HACCP system for the domestic market. Tea industry in India is subjected to several legislations imposed by the GOI. To strengthen the base of the industry, the Tea Board, the central government and state governments as well as the plantation associations have actively taken part in assisting the producers of tea plantations by both institutional and financial supports. The Tea Board is in the process of implementing an IT based information dissemination plan for the industry, including the electronic trading at the auction centres. The discussion with the exporters revealed that the exporters are satisfied with the role played by the GOI, Tea Board and UPASI as well as the present policy resolutions undertaken by the Tea Board and GOI to a certain extent. They suggested for constructive efforts in generic promotion of tea in all the angles, through increasing production, consumption and exports in general.ThesisItem Open Access Formulation of low fat beef burger with fat replacers(Department of Livestock Products Technology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2010) Govande Premanand Lxmanrao, KAU; George Oommen, THealth conscious meat consumers prefer low fat meat products due to increasing incidents of high fat induced diseases. Manufacturing meat products with fat replacers (FR) enable to reduce fat and to alleviate the problems with the reduction of fat in products. Therefore, the present study was undertaken with the objectives of developing a palatable and economic formulary for low fat beef burger (LFBB) with carrageenan (CG), tapioca starch (TS), pregelatinised pork skin collagen (PSC) and their blends as FR and to assess its pH, cooking characteristics, proximate composition, nutritional value, textural and organoleptic qualities and shelf life under aerobic (AP) and vacuum packaging (VP) at 0-4oC and -20oC and its cost of production. Beef burgers (BB) are formulated at two different fat levels, viz., full fat (FF) 20 per cent and low fat (LF) 5 per cent as controls. Seven formulations of LFBB with 5 per cent fat are prepared with 0.5 per cent CG, 1.5 per cent TS, 2 per cent PSC and their blends, viz., CG-TS - 0.5% CG & 1.5% TS; CG-PSC - 0.5% CG & 2.0% PSC; TS-PSC - 1.5% TS & 2.0% PSC; CG-TS-PSC - 0.5% CG, 1.5% TS & 2.0% PSC as FR. BB are prepared as per the formularies with minced lean beef trimmings, tallow, salt, spices and condiments, rusk, ice flakes and FR. They are packaged aerobically in HDPE and in vacuum in polyethylene-polyamide (PEPA) pouches. pH, cook yield (CY), cook loss (CL), fat retention percentage (FRP), moisture retention percentage (MRP), dimensional shrinkage (DS), water holding capacity (WHC), Warner-Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF), Hunter L*, a*, b* colour values, proximate and mineral composition and nutritional value, purge loss (PL), Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) value and sensory qualities are assessed on d 0, 10, 20 and 30 of storage at 0-4oC and -20oC or till spoilage, whichever is earlier. Six trials of the experiment were conducted. Cooking reduced the acidity of all the burgers. By the addition of FR a significantly (P< 0.05) very low acid cooked LFBB could be prepared. CY of burgers with CG-TS-PSC was significantly (P< 0.05) the highest with 85.84 per cent. LFBB with blends of FR significantly (P< 0.05) increased CY and correspondingly reduced CL. The DS in LFBB with CG-TS-PSC was significantly (P< 0.05) the lowest with 13.21 per cent. Addition of blends of FR holds water and fat in LFBB and reduces DS during cooking. FRP and MRP in CG-TS-PSC formulation was significantly (P< 0.05) the highest with 97.66 and 74.36 per cent, respectively due to blends of CG, TS and PSC. The WHC of LFBB with CG-TS-PSC was 95.36 per cent and WBSF value 5.30 N comparable to FF and the burgers were significantly (P< 0.05) most succulent, juicy and tender with the addition of blends of FR compared to tougher BB without FR. According to Hunter L*, a*, b* values, LFBB with blends of FR, especially CG-TS-PSC was lighter, less reddish (more bluish) and less yellowish (more greenish) and comparable to FF burger. Fat content in the beef trimmings and PSC were < 1.76 per cent. Cooking significantly (P< 0.05) reduced moisture content with a corresponding increase in the protein, fat, carbohydrate and ash. The percentage total calorific value of LFBB ranged from 6.36 to 7.18 of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). The contribution of fat to RDA of calorific value was from 2.22 to 2.42 per cent only, which was below the recommended 30 per cent. More than one third of the daily requirement of protein is obtained from 100g of LFBB. LFBB with FR are good sources of Na, K and P but not of Ca. Blends of FR in LFBB, especially CG-TS-PSC, were more efficient in significantly (P< 0.05) reducing PL and TBARS value on storage at 0-4oC for 10 days and at -20oC for 30 days in AP and VP. TBARS values were lower than the acceptable range of 1mg malonaldehyde/kg for oxidative rancidity. The low fat content and the presence of onion containing antioxidants in the formulary would have synergistically acted with CG in reducing the TBARS. On sensory evaluation on zero day, the LFBB with CG-TS-PSC scored significantly higher (P< 0.05) values of 7.00 and above for very good appearance and colour, very intense flavour, very desirable texture, juiciness, practically nil mouth coating and very acceptable overall acceptability similar to FF burger. But saltiness was very desirable than in FF. The LFBB with CG-TS-PSC in AP and VP retained all the sensory attributes and proximate composition even on storage. The very acceptable nature of CG-TS-PSC formulation might be due to the synergistic effect of fat replacers. The LFBB with 5 per cent fat and CG (0.5%), TS (1.5%), PSC (2%) and their blends as FR are developed economically with very acceptable overall acceptability, CY, nutritional quality, reduced PL and oxidative rancidity and shelf life up to 10 days at 0-4oC and 30 days at -20oC under AP and VP. The best LFBB with overall acceptability was CG-TS-PSC followed by CG-TS, CG-PSC, TS-PSC, PSC, CG and TS. Blends of FR are better than single FR, particularly CG-TS-PSC, as they increased CY, FRP, MRP, WHC, sensory attributes and decreased pH, CL, DS, WBSF, PL and TBARS. Further investigations with production of large quantities are required for calculation of cost of production at commercial scale.ThesisItem Open Access Studies on the ameliorative effect of vitamin E on paraquat toxicity in rats(Centre for Excellence in Pathology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2010) Divya, V S; Vijayan, NThe present study entitled ‘Studies on the ameliorative effect of vitamin E on paraquat toxicity in rats’ was undertaken by administering the animals with paraquat dichloride and vitamin E for a period of 28 days. The weekly body weights, clinical signs, haematology and biochemical parameters were analysed. Of the twelve animals in each group, six animals were sacrificed at the end of second week and remaining at the end of forth week. The gross pathology and histopathology of various organs were studied. The oxidative damage of the lungs and kidneys was assessed by the estimation of lipid peroxides and reduced glutathione. None of the animals in the experimental groups revealed any clinical signs of toxicity except for one rat each from paraquat alone treated group and paraquat plus vitamin E treated group which became weak towards the end of experiment. Although, all the groups showed a gradual increase in body weight, those animals treated with paraquat alone and those with paraquat and vitamin E showed a reduced weight gain when compared with the control group. The AST, ALT, ALP and creatinine values showed a significant increase in treatment groups compared to the control. In vitamin E treated group, a slight decrease was noticed in these biochemical parameters. Hb and PCV values showed a significant decrease and the total leukocyte count showed a significant increase in treatment groups when compared to control group. There was no variation in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and differential leukocyte count. In vitamin E treated group, a slight increase in Hb and PCV values were noticed. There was an increase in the lipid peroxides and concurrent reduction in the glutathione in the lung and kidney homogenate which indicated oxidative damage. Gross lesions were almost similar in both treatment groups. The congestive changes were noticed in lungs, kidneys and liver. The histopathological changes noticed in paraquat alone treated group were congestion, haemorrhage, focal areas of necrosis with proliferation of fibroblasts in the lungs, thickening of the interalveolar septa. The bronchi revealed desquamation of proliferated epithelium. Degenerative changes in the renal tubules, focal necrotic changes in the liver and varying degrees of degenerative changes in the heart, stomach, intestine and brain were the other lesions noticed. These lesions became more intensified in animals treated for four weeks. In vitamin E treated group, a slight reduction in the intensity of lesion was noticed. The bronchial epithelium was intact. Mild proliferation of fibroblasts and congestive changes were also noticed in the lungs. Focal necrotic changes were noticed in the kidneys and liver. Mild degenerative changes were noticed in the heart and intestine. The study revealed that the vitamin E is not completely suitable for management of the renal and pulmonary disorders in subacute paraquat toxicity in rats.