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ThesisItem Open Access Morphometry and ageing of captive male asian elephants (Elephas maximus)(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Sasikumar, M; KAU; Francis, XavierThe collection of morphometric details from elephants of different age groups would enhance our biological understanding and management of this valuable species.. A total of fifty two clinically healthy captive male Asian elephants, varying in age, under excellent management, maintained by 'Guruvayoor Devaswom Board' were utilized for predicting body weight and height from body measurements as well as determination of age from physical features. For prediction equations several morphometric parameters were measured. All possible linear regressions of weight on one, two, three and four body measurements were calculated. The equations having highest coefficient determination value (R2) with least standard error of estimation was taken for predicting body weight and height in elephants. The data were also divided into age groups (Group I (Young ones; 0-20 years), Group 11 (Sub adults; 21-30 years), Group III (Adults; 31-40 years), and Group IV (0 Id adults; 41-70 years)) and all possible linear regressions were calculated for each group. The best prediction of body weight (kg) for all age groups (G I to G IV) was obtained based on two parameters; the chest girth (cm) and right forefoot circumference (cm). Single and also the combination of various parameters were used for the prediction' of body weight in different age groups. An equation to predict the height at the shoulders (cm) from right forefoot circumference (cm) for various age groups of elephants was also derived. Various parameters were correlated with age of the elephants and average values of these parameters were salculated for age approximation. The data were again divided into various age groups (Group A (Young ones; 0-20 years), Group B (Adults; 21-40 years), and Group C (Old adults; 41- 70 years)) and comparison of parameters between two age groups was done. The parameters such as depigmentation on the trunk, hair distribution, hollow on the temple region, width of the ear, circumference of tusk base and middle, and height at the shoulders had high correlation as well as significant difference in various age group comparisons. So, these parameters could be useful for age estimation in male elephants with more precision.ThesisItem Open Access Management Systems and Utilisation Pattern of Captive Male Elephants(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2004) Cijo K JosephThe utilization pattern, management and nutrition of the elephants of Kerala under different ownership conditions were studied between June-2003 and July-2004 using survey method. The credibility of the information so collected was checked using triangulation method where, the information about an animal was collected from the owner, mahout, and also by physical verification of the claims in all possible cases. It was seen that the elephants of private owners with one elephant (25.2years) were significantly younger than the elephants of private owners with more than one elephant and elephants of temple trusts with one elephant (32.7 and 35.4 years respectively). The comparison of the height of the elephants revealed that the average height of elephants of forest department (245cm) was significantly lesser than the average height of elephants of private owners with more than one elephant and elephants of temple trusts with one elephant (278.7cm and 283.9cm respectively). The group wise variations in the frequencies of bath given to the elephants were insignificant but the duration of bath in elephants of forest department was significantly lesser than the average duration of bath in all other groups. It was also seen that most of the elephants in Kerala did not have proper housing facilities, and that majority of them were tied under tree on sandy floor. Studies on the utilization pattern of the elephants revealed that the elephants irrespective of their type of ownership were idle for most of the time in the year and that the elephants idled for the maximum number of days in a year (322.3 days). Further, the elephants of group-2 attended the maximum number of festivals in a year (82.9 ±6.92 days). Proximate analysis of the feed fed to the elephants revealed that the nutritional status of elephants of temples with one elephant was the highest. The study also revealed that all the elephants of group-4 were given restorative therapy and the elephants of group-5 were not given restorative therapy.ThesisItem Open Access Draught Efficiency of Elephants in Timber Mills(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2001) Prasad, A; KAU; Saseendran, P CSix elephants working in four different private timber mills in Trichur district were selected for the present study. Average weight of elephants estimated using formula was 4627.80 + 114.15 kg. Elephants consumed 213.00 + 3.338 kg roughages and 7.50 + 0.475 kg of concentrate. They obtained 9.721 + 0.837 kg dry matter, 3.613 + 0.075 kg DCP and 31.517 + 0.754 kg of TDN over and above maintenance requirement, which may be the amount of nutrient utilized for work performance. Elephants were engaged for three types of work in timber mills, carrying, moving/stalking and hauling timber logs. Mean draught developed during carrying was 445.095 + 22.448 kg. Elephant could be made to carry weights upto 20 per cent of their body weight on their tusk during carrying and stalking/moving timber. A new instrument called Elephant Draught Power Monitor was fabricated to measure the draught developed during hauling timber. A regression, Y = 0.7787 x – 100.69 (where Y is the draught developed and X is the weight of the log hauled) was developed from the measurements. The draught power estimated this equation was compared with the values obtained by the formula draught = load x CosƟ. It was assumed that the formula draught = load x CosƟ was not suitable for elephant draught power measurement. The average draught developed during hauling was 1779.391 + 130.386 kg. Highest maximum of weight that an elephant could be made to haul during instantaneous force development was 188 per cent of the body weight. Maximum limit of weight that an elephant could be made to haul during continuous work was 38 per cent of its body weight. Speed of work of elephants during carrying, moving and hauling was 1.333 + 0.075, 0.630 + 0.014 and 0.701 + 0.014 m/s respectively. Speed of work of elephants decreased with increase in weight of the log transported. The average horse power developed during carrying, moving and hauling were 7.116 + 0.106, 2,566 + 0.048 and 7.138 + 0.280 respectively. The average work output per day during carrying, moving and hauling were 1819.004 + 92.619 KJ, 179.718 + 5.955 KJ, 3375.373 + 16.885 KJ respectively. Maximum work output from elephant was obtained during hauling. Maximum work output (34 per cent) occurred during 8.30 am to 9.30 am in timber mills. Elephants were made to work minimum during 12.30 pm to 2.30 pm. Rectal temperature was identified as the most reliable physiological parameter which can be used as an indicator of fatigue. Maximum body temperature recorded during work was 1000 F. Maximum frequency of spraying of saliva during the entire study period was two/minute and maximum frequency of fanning of ears was 45/min. The value of rectal temperature when the elephants were fatigued was 98.60 F. Work may be stopped and elephant should be given rest before reaching this body temperature to avoid undue fatigue. Mechanised power which replaces elephant power in many timber mills has certain advantages. But use of elephant has got the advantage of utilization of renewable resources environmental friendliness and greater maneuverability during work.ThesisItem Open Access Medroxyprogesterone acetate as an aid to birth control programme in stray dogs(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Deepak Mathew, D K; KAU; Joseph MathewThe utility of Medroxyprogesterone acetate as an aid in the birth control programme of stray dogs was studied. Eighteen early proestrus bitches were randomly allotted to three equal groups (Group A Group B and Group C). Group A animals were administered with a single subcutaneous injection of 50 mg medroxyprogesterone acetate. Group B animals were administered medroxyprogesterone acetate orally at the rate of 10 mg per day for four days followed by 5 mg per day for another 12 days starting from the end of anoestrus. Six bitches of Group C acted as control animals. All animals in Group A and Group B responded to the treatment though one animal in Group A had returned to cycle in about 50 days. Reproductive cycle was controlled in all six animals of group A at a mean of 3.17 days and a mean of of 2.67 days in group B. Group A animals had a mean duration of control of 83.3 days while in group B it was 90 days. Vulval edema, vulval discharge, tail deviation reflex and interest in male decreased following treatment in Groups A and B while it seemed to be not changed or high in Group C animals. Detailed vaginal cytology was studied using Wright- Giemsa's stain. Cellular changes was characterized by a change from predominance of parabasal cells following treatment in Groups A and B while changes characteristic of oestrus cycle occurred in the control animals. There was significant difference in the mean percentage of parabasal cells between Groups A and B after treatment and during different stages of the oestrus cycle of the Group A up to end of dioestrus. Serum progesterone was estimated in all animals at fortnightly intervals. Animals in group A, B and C showed mean serum progesterone concentrations of 0.53 ng/ml, 0.57 ng/ml and 0.45 ng/ml during the beginning of proestrus. The mean progesterone in serum following treatment elevated in Group A to 27.83 ng/ml, while it maintained a low level of 0.55 ng/ml in group B and had a value of 4.43 ng/ml in group C which indicated oestrus phase. The progesterone level reached maximum concentration of 31.17 ng/ml on day 42 in group A and 49.00 ng/ml during dioestrus in group C. The values remained low in group B. Towards the end of experiment all animals had basal concentration of progesterone. It is concluded that reproductive control can be achieved effectively in bitches treated with medroxyprogesterone acetate by both oral and parenteral routes. Oral administration demand less technicalities and hence is more suitable for use in the field.ThesisItem Open Access Study on management information system in institutional swine farm(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Bindu, P; KAU; Joseph MathewA study on Management-Information System (MIS) was conducted in Centre for Pig Production and Research (CPPR), Mannuthy to analyse the merits and demerits of the MIS presently available in the farm and to formulate an MIS based on computer software which may improve managerial efficacy and decision making process in swine farm and to develop, refine and then recommend a management information system. The merits and demerits of the present MIS in the centre were studied by conducting a survey using separate and well-designed questionnaire among scientists technical staff and administrative staff and also by interview. The information obtained in the survey were analysed and meaningful conclusions were drawn on the efficiency of the present MIS. Observations were made on the present MIS prevailing in the Centre with regard to various production parameters such as animals, its production and reproduction details, feeding, breeding, weeding, human resource components, labour management administration, financial implications, research, teaching and extension activities, profit and loss account productivity of each element and all other related elements. A computerized MIS was developed using the data collected from the farm. The enterprise edition of Visual Basic 6.0 was used as front end, while MS Access-97 was used as back end for the package developed. The MIS developed under this study is structured under a main menuwith various sub-menus such as System, History, Administration, Research, Breed and Management. The System sub-menu has Change Password, Users and Exit options. The History sub-menu is segmented into Introduction, Units divisions, Lay out, Objectives, Head of Station and Teaching and Extension options. The Administration sub-menu is divided into Employee details, Pay Entry Staff, Pay Entry Labours, Enter Biodata and List Employees options. The Research sub-menu has Select Title and Add Title options. Breed sub menu is provided with Details, Breed pictures, Add Animal group, Add Animal, Birth Entry, Death Entry, Sales and Care and Management options. The sub-menu Management is segmented into Registers, Profit/loss, Weight Recordings, Feed Management and Profit Loss Entry options. The developed software was tested by an “on-farm trial run” in the Centre for a period of one month for'identifying the defects and the developed MIS has recommended as a model after rectifying the defect. The model can be recommended for other farms with necessary modifications.ThesisItem Open Access Performance of three introduced breeds of pigs in Kerala(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2000) Dinesh, M T; KAU; Thomas, C KA study was conducted to find out the production performance and adaptability of three newly imported breeds of "pigs viz. Duroc, Large White Yorkshire and Landrace and to compare it with that of existing Large White Yorkshire pigs of Kerala. Thirty animals from each group were selected for the study. All the animals were fed with same type of feed through out the experimental period. Body weight and body measurements were recorded at fortnighdy intervals. The quantity of feed consumed by each group was also recorded. Rectal temperature was measured at weekly intervals during the noon hours. Animals were also observed during noon and feeding hours to study the adaptive behavioral manifestations. The results revealed that the body weight of the newly imported pigs were superior to that of Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs. The body weight averaged 64.50+6.63, 62.75±5.16, 82.031±8.50 and 39.89±7.23 between 4.5 to 5 months of age and 171.25+7.69, 173.66+7.38, 169.14±9,98 and 124.66±11.64 between 11 and 11.5 months of age. The newly imported pigs were ready for slaughter at 6.5 to 7.0 months of age while the Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs attained the 100-kg target during 9.5 to 10.months of age. The average daily gain calculated for the Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs was also lower than the three newly imported groups. Average daily gain up to 100 kg body weight averaged 630, 673, 672 and 453 g for Duroc, Large White Yorkshire Landrace and Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs. Feed conversion ratio up to 100 kg body weight averaged 4.03, 3.95, 3.72 and 4.63 for the above four breeds. Results of body measurements show that the Large White Yorkshire pigs maintained at Mannuthy farm was the smallest animal in all weight, groups. Landrace pigs were the longest (120.47 cm) and duroc pigs were the tallest (87.63) at the end of the experimental period. Data regarding the rectal temperature revealed that the temperature recorded for the Mannuthy pigs was slightly higher than the three newly imported groups. Among the four breeds the newly imported Large White Yorkshire pigs were the most aggressive animal at the time of feeding while Duroc pigs were comparatively quiet at the time of feeding. The present study revealed that the overall production performance of Large White Yorkshire pigs, ancestors of which were imported to kerala about 20 years ago, is inferior to that of newly imported Duroc, Large White Yorkshire and Landrace pigs. But the production performance of Mannuthy, Large White Yorkshire pigs was found, to superior to that of many other exotic pigs maintained in other parts of India.ThesisItem Open Access Population,age and sex assessment of free-ranging elephants of Periyar tiger reserve(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Subhash, C K; KAU; Saseendran, P CA demographic study on the free ranging elephants of Periyar Tiger Reserve was conducted from March to May 2005. Herd composition, age structure and sex assessment were the main parameters recorded. The technique of molecular sexing using dung extracted DNA was incorporated into the study to reduce error in determining sex by physical verification. The published results by different investigators on the structure and pattern of elephant population in Periyar Tiger Reserve varied widely, especially on the age structure and biased sex ratios towards females giving the elephants in Periyar Tiger reserve a high priority conservation status. This information formed the basis for the study. Of the total 239 elephants observed in 43 herds, 193 elephants were classified based on age and sex. It was found that more than 50 per cent of the recorded elephants were adult females. The calves formed 5.19 per cent, juveniles 20.76 per cent, sub adults 20.76 per cent and adult males only 0.889 per cent of the observed population. Females formed 81.99 per cent and males formed only 18.01% of the population, but the proportion of males and females in the calf and juvenile category was almost same, with a shift biased towards the females from the sub adult category onwards. The sex ratios in the juvenile, sub adult and adult categories were 1:0.9, 1:4.71 and 1:58.95 respectively. In the observed age-sex classes, adult females and sub adult females formed the major portion (69.53 %) of the population, a shift towards the older age class. The calving interval of the Periyar elephants was above 10 years and the fecundity rate 0.099 indicating a population suggestive of acute shortage of breeding bulls and approximately only one in ten adult females conceive every year. This is the first study to combine reliable conventional tools and molecular methods to assess sex of free-ranging elephant population of Periyar Tiger Reserve. It is found that molecular sexing is a very reliable tool for assessing the sex of individuals of free-ranging wild animal populations. The study infers that the present situation of the Periyar elephants is crucial and calls for further research and immediate active population management strategies.ThesisItem Open Access Adaptability of crossbred pigs under different housing and feeding systems(Department of Livestock Production and Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Anton Roseline, J; KAU; Joseph MathewA study was conducted to find out the adaptability of two crossbred pigs, viz., CB1 (Duroc 50% and Large White Yorkshire 50 %) and CB2 (Desi 50% and Large White Yorkshire 50%) under different housing and feeding systems. Twenty-four weaned piglets from each genetic group were randomly divided into four groups of six animals each and were subjected to four treatments, i.e., group housing with wallowing facility, fed with conventional feed (T1), group housing with wallowing facility, fed with unconventional feed (T2), individual housing without wallowing facility, fed with conventional feed (T3) and individual housing without wallowing facility, fed with unconventional feed (T4). The climatological data, rectal temperature, pulse and respiratory rate at weekly intervals, daily feed intake, fortnightly body weight and behavioural scores of the animals were recorded. The average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), total cost of production per kg of live body weight, proximate principles of the feeds and faecal cortisol level were estimated. On attaining the slaughter weight two animals from each group were slaughtered for studying the carcass characteristics. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in microclimatic variables, viz., maximum and minimum temperature and relative humidity between the treatments. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in rectal temperature between the treatments but the pulse and respiratory rates were significantly higher (P<0.05) in group housed pigs than the individually housed pigs in both the genetic groups. Significantly higher (P<0.05) growth rate in T3 and T4 groups (individually housed) of CB1 and a trend for higher growth rate in T3 and T4 groups (individually housed) of CB2 were observed. The ADG was highest in T4 followed by T3, T2 and T1 and the FCR on dry matter basis was highest in T2 followed by T4, T1 and T3 in both the genetic groups. Though there were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the behavioural scores, the feeding behavioural score was better was higher in pigs fed with unconventional feed. The quantity of dung voided was highest in pigs fed with conventional feed. The slaughter weight and hot carcass weight (kg) were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the T3 and T4 of CB1 pigs but these traits were numerically higher in T4 followed by T3, T2 and T1 of CB2 pigs. Back fat thickness (mm) was lesser in CB1 than CB2. Individually housed pigs had relatively higher back fat thickness in both the breeds. The loin eye area (cm2) was numerically higher in CB1 than CB2 pigs. The dressing percentage was lower in groups fed with unconventional feed (T2 and T4) and meat yield (percentage) was higher in T3 and T4 in both the breeds. The meat bone ratio was numerically higher in CB2 when compared to CB1 pigs. The moisture level was more in swill (72.03%) followed by chicken waste (71.88%) and infertile egg (59.87)%. The crude protein and ether extract were highest in chicken waste followed in infertile egg and swill. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the faecal cortisol level between the treatments of both the breeds. From this study it is concluded that both genetic combination had better performance when they were maintained on unconventional feed irrespective of their housing and feeding systems. Among these two breeds Desi 50% and Large White Yorkshire 50%(CB2) seemed to be economical under unconventional feeding in both the housing systems, considering the cost of production per kg live body weight.ThesisItem Open Access Breeding behaviour and testosterone level of male spotted deer(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Roshin Anie Jose; KAU; Saseendran, P CCaptive population of spotted deer (Cervus axis axis) maintained in zoological gardens, Thrissur were utilized to study the breeding behaviour and testosterone level of males. Out of a total of 45 males, four males in the higher order of hierarchy were selected for the study. A total of 436 hours of observation were carried out by focal animal sampling technique using a behaviour score sheet. Faecal samples were collected from these animals and stored at -20 ºC, until it was extracted for measurement for faecal testosterone and cortisol by radioimmunoassay. Seasonal breeding activity was deduced by reducing the gestation period from the date of birth and monsoon season (35 %) followed by summer season (31%) were selected as the seasons of maximum breeding. Raining season was avoided to eliminate the errors in sample collection and observation of the herd was done in winter and summer. Four males in the higher order of hierarchy were identified based on their body size, antler size, capacity to take the vantage positions and dominance. Animals were named as alpha I, alpha II, velvet I and velvet II. The dominant male of the group was found to develop the longest antlers among the group. Similarly, the body size was more in the velvet forming stage. The blackness of the face, especially the area around the muzzle increases from non-breeding to the breeding stage. The antler cycle of males includes different stages like pedicle formation, velvet growth, velvet shedding, hardened antler stage (rutting stage) and antler cast state. Largest harem size was observed in alpha I(26)followed by alpha II(16).The most frequently observed breeding activity was sniffing 70.78% followed by flehmen 8.98%.Maximum score for breeding behavior was obtained for alpha I(13)followed by alpha II (11).But the actual breeding frequency was more in velvet I (6) followed by velvet II ,which is four per day. The mean testosterone concentration in the pedicel formation stage was 8.55±0.44ng/g of dry weight of faeces (ng/g) and concentration in the velvet stage was about 4.74±0.15ng/g. In the velvet shedding stage, the testosterone concentration was 17.77±0.71ng/g. In the rutting stage of velvet I and velvet II, the concentration was about 19.64±0.86ng/g and 16.08±0.47ng/g respectively and for alpha I and alpha II the level was 19.2±0.97ng/g and 12.8±1.58ng/g. The mean testosterone concentration in the casting stage was 6.37±0.30ng/g. The mean testosterone concentration in the stags which where in rutting stage during summer exhibited a testosterone level of 17.95±0.65ng/g and in winter rutting males the concentration was 16.19±0.18ng/g. Individual differences in the basal and peak values of faecal cortisol metabolites were observed. Mean cortisol concentration in the pedicle formation stage was 118.67±3.99ng/g and in velvet stage, it was 337.77±2.78ng/g. In the velvet shedding stage, the mean cortisol concentration decreased to 110.83±8.83ng/g. The mean cortisol concentration in the rutting stage was 121.07±6.88ng/g and in the casting stage the concentration was 114.54±5.57ng/g. There was no correlation between the breeding score and cortisol in any of the stages of sexual cycle. Similarly no correlation was found between the faecal cortisol level and faecal testosterone level. A positive correlation (ρ=. 878, p<. 01) between the breeding score and faecal testosterone was observed in animals during velvet stage. A similar correlation was also observed during velvet shedding stage and rutting stage. But in the antler casting stage and pedicel formation stage no significant correlation was seen. The results of the present study suggests that in captive herds of spotted deer, non invasive method can be successfully used to find out the testosterone levels, which can be integrated with breeding behaviour to have a better understanding of the breeding patterns of the group. This knowledge of breeding behavior in relation to testosterone level can be effectively used to adopt some measures to contain the population size.