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Open Access
Morphometry and ageing of captive male asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Sasikumar, M; KAU; Francis, Xavier
The collection of morphometric details from elephants of different age groups would enhance our biological understanding and management of this valuable species.. A total of fifty two clinically healthy captive male Asian elephants, varying in age, under excellent management, maintained by 'Guruvayoor Devaswom Board' were utilized for predicting body weight and height from body measurements as well as determination of age from physical features. For prediction equations several morphometric parameters were measured. All possible linear regressions of weight on one, two, three and four body measurements were calculated. The equations having highest coefficient determination value (R2) with least standard error of estimation was taken for predicting body weight and height in elephants. The data were also divided into age groups (Group I (Young ones; 0-20 years), Group 11 (Sub adults; 21-30 years), Group III (Adults; 31-40 years), and Group IV (0 Id adults; 41-70 years)) and all possible linear regressions were calculated for each group. The best prediction of body weight (kg) for all age groups (G I to G IV) was obtained based on two parameters; the chest girth (cm) and right forefoot circumference (cm). Single and also the combination of various parameters were used for the prediction' of body weight in different age groups. An equation to predict the height at the shoulders (cm) from right forefoot circumference (cm) for various age groups of elephants was also derived. Various parameters were correlated with age of the elephants and average values of these parameters were salculated for age approximation. The data were again divided into various age groups (Group A (Young ones; 0-20 years), Group B (Adults; 21-40 years), and Group C (Old adults; 41- 70 years)) and comparison of parameters between two age groups was done. The parameters such as depigmentation on the trunk, hair distribution, hollow on the temple region, width of the ear, circumference of tusk base and middle, and height at the shoulders had high correlation as well as significant difference in various age group comparisons. So, these parameters could be useful for age estimation in male elephants with more precision.
Open Access
Draught Efficiency of Elephants in Timber Mills
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Mannuthy, 2001) Prasad, A; KAU; Saseendran, P C
Six elephants working in four different private timber mills in Trichur district were selected for the present study. Average weight of elephants estimated using formula was 4627.80 + 114.15 kg. Elephants consumed 213.00 + 3.338 kg roughages and 7.50 + 0.475 kg of concentrate. They obtained 9.721 + 0.837 kg dry matter, 3.613 + 0.075 kg DCP and 31.517 + 0.754 kg of TDN over and above maintenance requirement, which may be the amount of nutrient utilized for work performance. Elephants were engaged for three types of work in timber mills, carrying, moving/stalking and hauling timber logs. Mean draught developed during carrying was 445.095 + 22.448 kg. Elephant could be made to carry weights upto 20 per cent of their body weight on their tusk during carrying and stalking/moving timber. A new instrument called Elephant Draught Power Monitor was fabricated to measure the draught developed during hauling timber. A regression, Y = 0.7787 x – 100.69 (where Y is the draught developed and X is the weight of the log hauled) was developed from the measurements. The draught power estimated this equation was compared with the values obtained by the formula draught = load x CosƟ. It was assumed that the formula draught = load x CosƟ was not suitable for elephant draught power measurement. The average draught developed during hauling was 1779.391 + 130.386 kg. Highest maximum of weight that an elephant could be made to haul during instantaneous force development was 188 per cent of the body weight. Maximum limit of weight that an elephant could be made to haul during continuous work was 38 per cent of its body weight. Speed of work of elephants during carrying, moving and hauling was 1.333 + 0.075, 0.630 + 0.014 and 0.701 + 0.014 m/s respectively. Speed of work of elephants decreased with increase in weight of the log transported. The average horse power developed during carrying, moving and hauling were 7.116 + 0.106, 2,566 + 0.048 and 7.138 + 0.280 respectively. The average work output per day during carrying, moving and hauling were 1819.004 + 92.619 KJ, 179.718 + 5.955 KJ, 3375.373 + 16.885 KJ respectively. Maximum work output from elephant was obtained during hauling. Maximum work output (34 per cent) occurred during 8.30 am to 9.30 am in timber mills. Elephants were made to work minimum during 12.30 pm to 2.30 pm. Rectal temperature was identified as the most reliable physiological parameter which can be used as an indicator of fatigue. Maximum body temperature recorded during work was 1000 F. Maximum frequency of spraying of saliva during the entire study period was two/minute and maximum frequency of fanning of ears was 45/min. The value of rectal temperature when the elephants were fatigued was 98.60 F. Work may be stopped and elephant should be given rest before reaching this body temperature to avoid undue fatigue. Mechanised power which replaces elephant power in many timber mills has certain advantages. But use of elephant has got the advantage of utilization of renewable resources environmental friendliness and greater maneuverability during work.
Open Access
Study on management information system in institutional swine farm
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Bindu, P; KAU; Joseph Mathew
A study on Management-Information System (MIS) was conducted in Centre for Pig Production and Research (CPPR), Mannuthy to analyse the merits and demerits of the MIS presently available in the farm and to formulate an MIS based on computer software which may improve managerial efficacy and decision making process in swine farm and to develop, refine and then recommend a management information system. The merits and demerits of the present MIS in the centre were studied by conducting a survey using separate and well-designed questionnaire among scientists technical staff and administrative staff and also by interview. The information obtained in the survey were analysed and meaningful conclusions were drawn on the efficiency of the present MIS. Observations were made on the present MIS prevailing in the Centre with regard to various production parameters such as animals, its production and reproduction details, feeding, breeding, weeding, human resource components, labour management administration, financial implications, research, teaching and extension activities, profit and loss account productivity of each element and all other related elements. A computerized MIS was developed using the data collected from the farm. The enterprise edition of Visual Basic 6.0 was used as front end, while MS Access-97 was used as back end for the package developed. The MIS developed under this study is structured under a main menuwith various sub-menus such as System, History, Administration, Research, Breed and Management. The System sub-menu has Change Password, Users and Exit options. The History sub-menu is segmented into Introduction, Units divisions, Lay out, Objectives, Head of Station and Teaching and Extension options. The Administration sub-menu is divided into Employee details, Pay Entry Staff, Pay Entry Labours, Enter Biodata and List Employees options. The Research sub-menu has Select Title and Add Title options. Breed sub menu is provided with Details, Breed pictures, Add Animal group, Add Animal, Birth Entry, Death Entry, Sales and Care and Management options. The sub-menu Management is segmented into Registers, Profit/loss, Weight Recordings, Feed Management and Profit Loss Entry options. The developed software was tested by an “on-farm trial run” in the Centre for a period of one month for'identifying the defects and the developed MIS has recommended as a model after rectifying the defect. The model can be recommended for other farms with necessary modifications.
Open Access
Performance of three introduced breeds of pigs in Kerala
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2000) Dinesh, M T; KAU; Thomas, C K
A study was conducted to find out the production performance and adaptability of three newly imported breeds of "pigs viz. Duroc, Large White Yorkshire and Landrace and to compare it with that of existing Large White Yorkshire pigs of Kerala. Thirty animals from each group were selected for the study. All the animals were fed with same type of feed through out the experimental period. Body weight and body measurements were recorded at fortnighdy intervals. The quantity of feed consumed by each group was also recorded. Rectal temperature was measured at weekly intervals during the noon hours. Animals were also observed during noon and feeding hours to study the adaptive behavioral manifestations. The results revealed that the body weight of the newly imported pigs were superior to that of Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs. The body weight averaged 64.50+6.63, 62.75±5.16, 82.031±8.50 and 39.89±7.23 between 4.5 to 5 months of age and 171.25+7.69, 173.66+7.38, 169.14±9,98 and 124.66±11.64 between 11 and 11.5 months of age. The newly imported pigs were ready for slaughter at 6.5 to 7.0 months of age while the Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs attained the 100-kg target during 9.5 to 10.months of age. The average daily gain calculated for the Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs was also lower than the three newly imported groups. Average daily gain up to 100 kg body weight averaged 630, 673, 672 and 453 g for Duroc, Large White Yorkshire Landrace and Mannuthy Large White Yorkshire pigs. Feed conversion ratio up to 100 kg body weight averaged 4.03, 3.95, 3.72 and 4.63 for the above four breeds. Results of body measurements show that the Large White Yorkshire pigs maintained at Mannuthy farm was the smallest animal in all weight, groups. Landrace pigs were the longest (120.47 cm) and duroc pigs were the tallest (87.63) at the end of the experimental period. Data regarding the rectal temperature revealed that the temperature recorded for the Mannuthy pigs was slightly higher than the three newly imported groups. Among the four breeds the newly imported Large White Yorkshire pigs were the most aggressive animal at the time of feeding while Duroc pigs were comparatively quiet at the time of feeding. The present study revealed that the overall production performance of Large White Yorkshire pigs, ancestors of which were imported to kerala about 20 years ago, is inferior to that of newly imported Duroc, Large White Yorkshire and Landrace pigs. But the production performance of Mannuthy, Large White Yorkshire pigs was found, to superior to that of many other exotic pigs maintained in other parts of India.
Open Access
Behaviour pattern of musth and non musth in captive Asian elephant
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2004) Sathasivam, S; KAU; Saseendran, P C
Adult male elephants live in a highly dynamic world of changing sexual state, rank, association and behaviour. Physiologically musth is known to be associated with the elevated testosterone levels. There is a positive relationship between changes in testosterone and musth related behaviour, which make the animal in physiological stress. Captive male Asian elephants maintained in the elephant camp at Punnarthurkotta were utilized for the study. Experimental animals were grouped into normal, pre-musth, musth and post-musth stages. A total of 193 hours of observation were carried out by focal animal sampling technique using a behaviour score sheet. Faecal samples were collected from each animal in all stages and stored at –200 c, until it was extracted for measurement of faecal testosterone by RIA technique. The staple food for the elephants under study was palm leaves and napier grass. The amount of palm leaves and napier grass given to growing elephants were 60 to 100 Kg and 20 to 50 Kg, respectively. Similarly for adult elephants amount ranges from 140 to 240 Kg and 50 to 100 Kg, respectively. The nutrient availability of growing and adult elephants was calculated, which shows greater than the required level. The maximum percentage of musth episodes was occurred in winter (30 %) followed by summer (29 %), post monsoon (27 %) and monsoon (14 %). The body weight loss in the experimental animals before and after musth period was about 71.66 ± 25.77 kg. The age at which first musth occurrence was about 24.10 ± 0.50 years. Age groups of 20 to30 (78 ± 3.95 days), 30 to 40(114.53 ± 8.9 days), 40 to 50 (120.37 ± 15.74 days) years elephants shows increasing trend in duration of musth, but vice versa in the age group of 50 to 60 years(90.00 ± 12.82 days). The average behavioural scores obtained for elephants in normal stages was about 12.33 ± 1.22. In pre-musth stage scores and post- musth stage the score were 34 ± 4.69 and 19.66 ± 3.10, respectively. In musth the score shot up to 70.29 ± 2.46 in first month, 78.70 ± 2.48 during second month, 68.15 ± 3.31 in third month, 58.15 ± 5.55, 51.25 ± 14.44 in fourth and fifth month, respectively. The mean faecal testosterone level during normal stage was about 770.96 ± 35.62(ng/g). The levels has increased to 1821.58  129.54(ng/g) during pre-musth stages and reached a peak level of 4307.81  242.40(ng/g) in second month of musth stage. The positive correlation (r =0.82,P<0.0002) was obtained between faecal testosterone and behavioural score in all stage of the experimental elephants. The significant differences in the faecal testosterone levels between normal versus pre-musth (P<0.00001), normal versus musth (P<0.00001), pre-musth versus musth (P<0.00001), musth versus post-musth (P<0.0003), normal versus post-musth (P<0.00001) and post- musth versus pre-musth (P<0.0003) were observed in the present study. Quantitative indicators of musth are enlargement of perineal gland was 2.75 ± 0.2, 7.15 ± 0.7, and 4.75 ± 0.1 in normal, second month of musth and pre-musth, respectively. Temporal gland enlargement was 3.5 ± 0.3, 3.15 ± 0.5 9.5 ± 0.9, in normal, post-musth and second month of musth, respectively. Flehmen response (per hour) was 3, 5 and 8 in normal, pre-musth and second month of musth, respectively. Trunk rising (per hour) was 3,8 and 17 in normal, pre-musth and second month of musth, respectively. Freezing of ears (per hour) was 0,8 and 17 in normal, pre-musth and second month of musth, respectively. Qualitative indicators at the most intensive musth stage of second month were temporal gland secretion up to jowl region, disobedience to mahout, alertness, throwing objects, urine dribbling and green penis syndrome. In addition to that in captivity swaying and stereotypic behaviours was observed. The results of present study suggest that integrating the behavioural and endocrine level could potentially provide a more meaningful measure of musth in captive male elephants and can help to resolve the management problems.
Open Access
Effect of water sprinkling in summer on the productive adaptability of halothane sensitive pigs
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2004) Deepa Jacob; KAU; Sebastian, K S
A study was conducted to assess the effect of water sprinkling In summer on the productive adaptability of halothane sensitive pigs. Twenty-four weaned castrated crossbred male piglets were randomly selected after screening for halothane sensitivity. Twelve piglets, six halothane positive and six halothane negative pigs were sprinkled with water during hot hours of the day .. The other twelve were treated as controls. The relative incidence of halothane sensitivity observed was 57.5%. The halothane positive sprinkled pigs had advantage over the other three treatment groups in feed conversion efficiency, resulting in least cost of production for this group. The cost of production per kilogram live body weight in halothane positive sprinkled pigs, positive non-sprinkled, negative sprinkled and negative non-sprinkled pigs were Rs.41.87, Rs.43.95, Rs.47.17 and Rs.48.73 respectively. Thus, the rearing of halothane positive pigs with water sprinkling proved relatively more profitable. Halothane positive pigs had a lower daily feed intake than the negative groups. Sprinkling with water had no statistically significant effect on the physiological parameters, body weights, average daily gain, body measurements, behavioural characteristics and carcass traits of the animals. Even though the differences between the treatments in the behavioural characteristics were non-significant, the number of aggressive encounters, the frequency of defecation and the quantity of dung voided were highest for the halothane positive non-sprinkled pigs. The overall results obtained during the course of the study are the unit cost of production was less for halothane positive animals with environmental enrichment by sprinkling
Open Access
Behavioural responses in captive male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to specified stressors
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2003) Vivek, G; KAU; Saseendran, P C
Assessing the welfare status of captive male Asian elephants is a growing area of concern, as ethical questions are raised about the psychological well-being of animals maintained in captivity. The study was undertaken as a synthesis of approach to measure stress through physiological and behavioural studies to quantify the welfare and ensure the well-being of elephants in captivity. Captive male elephants maintained at the "elephant camp" in Punnathur Kotta under the Guruvayoor Devaswom Board were utilized for the present study. The animals were divided into seven groups: group I (musth), group 11 (travel), group III (disease), group IV (restraint), group V (summer), group VI (monsoon) and group VII (normal). All the behavioural and physiological data were collected from the individual animals in the above mentioned groups. A total of forty two behaviours grouped into combined variables, were measured by focal-animal sampling technique using a behaviour check sheet to identify the behaviours indicative of stress. A total of thirty two hours of behavioural data were collected from four animals in each group, with eight hours of observation on each animal. The data were then analyzed using non-parametric tests to determine the significance of stress related behaviours. Most of the behaviours were performed with higher significance in group I followed by other groups in conjunction with a description of the context within which it takes place as an indicator of stress. The results indicate that musth is the single most stressful event. The prominent stress related behaviours identified during the present study were r.o stereotypes, temporal gland secretion and aggression. The frequency or intensity of performance of other behaviours was in line with the severity of the stressful event. A good correlation between the cortisol values and behaviour scores indicates that both physiological and behavioural measures can be used in conjunction as potential non-invasive methods to assess stress. Other physiological measures like rectal temperature and respiratory rate could not be used as a measure of stress, since the healthy subjects have the physiological and behavioural ability to cope with varying conditions of stress to maintain the normal homeostasis. Urine and faecal samples collected from animals in each group were stored at -20°C until it was processed and analyzed for measurement of cortisol metabolites by radioimmunoassay technique and urine creatinine concentrations by enzyme immunoassay technique using standard procedures. Urine creatinine concentrations were analyzed to counteract the variations in fluid intake by individual animals. Mean urine cortisol concentrations were found to be highest during musth (143.60 ± 30.07 ng/mg Cr) followed by restraint (115.62 ± 20.65 ng/mg Cr), disease (102.86 ± 22.44 ng/mg Cr), travel (93.07 ± 19.78 ng/mg Cr), summer (73.55 ± 11.95 ng/mg Cr) and monsoon (69.13 ± 11.63 ng/mg Cr) when compared to the mean values in normal group (59.98 ± 8.45 ng/mg Cr), indicative of the level of stress in each group. Similarly mean faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (11,17- dioxoandrostanes) were highest during musth (449.02 ± 86.31 nmol/kg) followed by restraint (354.62 ± 72.07 nmol/kg), summer (337.85 ± 41.94 nmol/kg), disease (335.52 ± 56.81 nmol/kg), travel (300.14 ± 50.71 nmol/kg) and monsoon (249.60 ± 44.31 nmol/kg). Both the urine cortisol concentrations and faecal cortisol metabolite concentrations followed a similar trend in the values indicating that, both the methods can be used as a measure for reliable indicator of stress. The results suggest that, musth is the most stressful event and monsoon season the least stressful event. The results of the present study suggest that, integrating the endocrine assessment, such as cortisol levels in the urine and faeces, with other evaluations based on behaviour could potentially provide a more meaningful measure of stress in captive living male Asian elephants and can help resolve the managemental problems. The study underlines the feasibility of measuring faecal and urine cortisol metabolites combined with behavioural measure as a non-invasive approach, to answer questions such as animal welfare and stress in captive elephants.
Open Access
Developement of an integrated farming system centered on pigs
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2000) Suraj, P T; KAU; Joseph Mathew
Efforts were taken to develop a model integrated farming system (IFS) centred on pigs at Centre for Pig Production and Research, Mannuthy. This animal-fish-vegetable IFS consisted of three groups of pigs viz. Large White Yorkshire (L WY), Crossbreds (CB) (Large White Yorkshire x Desi) and Desi, three tanks for fish rearing and three sets of vegetable plots with four varieties of vegetable crops. Different treatments were applied to each unit of fish feeding as pig manure only, pig manure and feed and feed only. In the vegetable plots different treatments were applied in manuring as pig manure only pig manure and chemical fertilizer and chemical fertilizer only. A clear breed difference was noticed between LWY and Desi with respect to traits such as feed intake, body weight, body measurements, average daily body weight gain (ADG) and' feed conversion efficiency (FCE). But there was no significant difference (Pbetween L WY and CB in ADG and FCE. When pig manure was used as fish feed the water quality was deteriorated but body weight, total yield and survival rate of fish were higher. The highest yield of vegetable obtained from the different crops depend on the variety of crop and manure or combination of manure used. The economics of production indicated that rearing pigs entirely on concentrate feed is uneconomical. But the integration of fish and vegetable to the pig production could improve the productivity of such systems with the improvement in overall economic efficiency. The result also indicated that a combination of LWY, fish utilizing the manure and vegetable cultivation by supplying the nitrogen requirement through pig manure is the most economical integration.
Open Access
Evaluation of husbandry practices in captive zoo mammals in Kerala
(Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2002) Biju, S; KAU; Francis Xavier
Husbandry practices adopted for captive zoo mammals, were studied in the Government owned zoological gardens located at Thiruvananthapuram and Thrissur districts ofKerala State. The mammals in the zoos were classified into ten groups, based on the taxonomic position and food habits. In the feeding management studies, the different feed ingredients used to formulate the ration for these ten groups of mammals were recorded. The dry matter content of the ration was worked out. A comparative study was taken up between Thiruvananthapuram and Thrissur Zoos, in the feed ingredients as well as in the dry matter content of the ration in all the above ten groups of mammals. The management practices with regard to housing of animals were also observed. Cages and enclosures were provided for the animals and in most of the cases the floor was made of cement concrete. A comparison between the two zoos with regard to the substrate and the type of cage for the ten groups of mammals were also made. The environment enrichment methods adopted as well as the provisions for wallowing and perching were also observed and compared in the two zoos among the ten groups of mammals. Under the captive breeding observations in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo it was found that 23 different mammalian species were kept in breeding pairs though successful breeding were noticed in 19 of them. The animals which do not breed in captivity even when kept in pairs, were the Indian Porcupine, the Himalayan Black Bear, the Sloth Bear and the Jungle Cat. Whereas in Thrissur Zoo" 11 mammalian species were in breeding pairs and out of that eight species were successfully breeding. The Indian Porcupine, Small Indian Civet and the Camels in the zoos were not breeding, eventhough they were in pairs. Disease prevalence was another management practice studied. Parasitic diseases (44.68 per cent), infectious diseases (35.11 per cent), non-specific conditions (17.02 per cent) and neoplastic conditions (3.19 per cent) were observed in captive mammals in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo; and infectious conditions (59.32 per cent), neoplastic conditions (15.25 per cent), parasitic diseases (13.56 per cent) and non-specific conditions (11.87 per cent) were observed in Thrissur Zoo. Vaccinations were regularly done only in felids in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo and no vaccinations were done in Thrissur Zoo. Regular dewormings were done for all mammals in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo, but only in carnivores and Camels in Thrissur Zoo. The frequency of deworming varied between the species and did not conform to any scientific suggestions. Hygiene and sanitation showed that the enclosures in the zoos were cleaned daily in the morning, before the feeding of the animals. Along with that the feed and water troughs were also cleaned. The water pools were emptied, cleaned and refilled twice in a week. 'Benzalkonium chloride' solution was the disinfectant used in the zoos, and were occasionally used only in the carnivore and primate cages.

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