Central Agricultural University, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Umiam
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ThesisItem Open Access Adaptation to climate change: an economic study of cereal crops in Eastern Himalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2016-11) Rymbai, Dayohimi; Feroze, S. M.The farmers adopt certain strategies to adapt the climate change in Eastern Himalaya (EH). The present study analyzed the climatic variability, identified the strategies adapted by the cereal growers, estimated the costs and benefits involved and reviewed the policy initiatives on climate change in Manipur and Sikkim. A sample of total 120 cereal farmers was selected from Senapati of Manipur and East Sikkim of Sikkim using multistage random sampling. Thirty-nine years (1975-2013) rainfall and temperature data were analyzed to study the climatic variability. Tobit model was used to identify the factors affecting adaptation and Multinomial Logit model was employed to determine the factors affecting the choices of adaptation strategies. Partial budgeting technique was used to estimate the cost and benefit of adaptation strategies. The annual normal rainfall has declined in Manipur and Sikkim and in most of the years the monsoon has set in within the first week of June during 1975-2013. The increasing linear trends in maximum temperature in Manipur and minimum temperature in Sikkim are siginificant. The perception of the sample farmers about the arrival of monsoon rainfall and the change in minimum temperature contradicted with the analyzed historical findings. The study reveals that the rice growers were the adapters. The widely adopted strategies were the change in transplanting time (Strategy 1) and change in transplanting as well as harvesting time (Strategy 2). Area under rice cultivation, decline in food availability and support from Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) positively influenced the farmers’ decision to adapt, whereas housing structure negatively influenced the same. The choice of Strategy 1 was found to be positively influenced by the area under rice cultivation and decline in rice productivity and negatively influenced by the number of cattle, support from State Agricultural Department and percentage of irrigated area. The choice of Strategy 2 was positively influenced by the area under rice cultivation and gender of the farmers. The costs of rice cultivation have increased by Rs.8505.63/ha and Rs.6374.29/ha which led to realization of net benefits of Rs.1329.30/ha and Rs.1568.67/ha only in case of Strategy 1 and Strategy 2, respectively. State Action Plan on Climate Change of Manipur was prepared in line with the National Action Plan on Climate Change and did not come up with any specific objective whereas, that of Sikkim priority was given on reviving the dried water bodies in the state. The study concludes that the change in climate is evident, but adaptation strategies were traditional and autonomous; the net benefit of adaptation was meager. Hence, construction of water harvesting structure and minor irrigation facilities should be emphasized by the State Governments. States should be allowed to take independent decision to identify and address its prioritized issues related to climate change.ThesisItem Open Access Consumer behaviour of tourists for agri-products in Meghalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Central Agricultural University , Imphal, 2018-07) Krishna, Kunchum Suresh; Feroze, S. M.Meghalaya, a famous hill station received 61.62 per cent of the total tourist inflow in the North Eastern (NE) states in 2015. The state is also known for fruits viz., pineapple, khasi mandarin and banana which are organically produced. These fruits along with other agri-products, which are highly preferred by the tourists, are sold at different tourist spots and along the NH-6. Tourism linked food marketing in the state generates opportunities for the farmers in direct marketing of their products as well as it provides income and employment opportunities to the stall owners and vendors.Consumers now increasingly demand specific attributes while purchasing agricultural products. Hence, the present study was conducted in Meghalaya to study the consumer preferences, identify the personal traits influencing preference and estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) for agri-products. A total of 220 tourists were personally interviewed at 44 stalls located at different tourist spots and along the NH-6. To find out the factors influencing consumer preference for different agricultural products binary Probit Models were used. Factor analysis was performed to group the similar personal traits that affect the preferences. Tobit Models were used to find out the factors affecting consumers’ WTP. The results revealed that the tourists preferred pineapple the most among different agri-products available at the stall or with the vendors. Local pickle products were mostly preferred by the tourists from NE states. Taste and freshness were perceived to be the important product attributes that influenced the consumer preferences. Factor analysis clubbed the consumers’ personal traits into three factors related to health and environment concern, marketing mix and food safety. WTP was highest in case of pineapple, followed by orange, bamboo pickle, banana and chilli pickle. Hence, fruits like pineapple and orange which are produced organically in the state have good potential to fetch high prices as they are preferred by the health concerned tourists. Organic labelling may be an added feature to be adhered in future.ThesisItem Open Access Crop diversification and its impact on farming households of Manipur: a micro-level study(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2017-11) Aheibam, Monika; Singh, RamDiversification of crops towards high value crop is no more a novel concept to the farming communities of the landlocked state Manipur. It is often suggested as a viable solution to stabilize and raise farm income, increase employment opportunities, nutritional security, conserve and enhance natural resource base when combined with the comparative advantage of the region. Taking into consideration, the gains associated with crop diversification, the present study analyzed the extent; identify the factors and impact of crop diversification at household level. A sample of total 200 households were selected from four villages of Kakching C.D. block, Thoubal district and five villages of Ukhrul C.D. block, Ukhrul district using PPS. Simpson Index of diversification was used to find out the extent of crop diversification while Tobit model was adopted to identify the factors influencing crop diversification. Heckman Sample Selection Model was used to estimate the impact of crop diversification on household’s food and nutritional security. The study found that about 58 per cent of the total households in Thoubal district had high level of crop diversification followed by medium level while in case Ukhrul district about 41 per cent of the total households exhibit high level of crop diversification followed by low level. The significant factors that drive households’ decision to diversify crop in Thoubal district were farm size, dependency ratio, availability of tools and machineries, access to fertilizer, availability of HYV or improved seeds, access to irrigation facility, farming information and market distance whereas, in Ukhrul district, age of the household head, family size, education of the household head, access to plough, access to farming information, training attended and market distance were the significant drivers affecting crop diversification. The study also found that households with sample average characteristics who selects into diversification secures 4.36 per cent higher food security than a household drawn at random from the population with the average set of characteristics. But challenges like labour shortage, inadequate availability of inputs, lack of irrigation facility, proper storage, and marketing facility which will favor or increase crop diversification are still prevalent in different regions of the state due to varied topographical and climatic difference within the state. Hence, improvement of infrastructure (regulated markets, storage, roads) as high value crops are perishable in nature, distinctive location specific inputs, infrastructures and extension services can enhance crop diversification at household level.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of cabbage production in East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2020-08) Kota, Karuna Sri; Coudhury, AnjuHorticulture sector has established its credibility in improving the income of the farmer by generating the employment through increased productivity. Importance of India’s vegetable growing is well acknowledged with raising domestic and per capita income. Cabbage is one of the most important cole crops which are grown in India with an area of 400 thousand ha and with the production of 897 thousand MT in 2018 (GoI, 2018). Cabbage occupies 2nd position with reference to area, production and productivity after potato in Meghalaya. The area under cabbage in 2018 was 1943 ha and the production was 42677 MT with a yield of 21964 kg/ha (GoM, 2018). Keeping in the view, the study was under taken with the following specific objectives viz., i) To assess the growth trends in area, production and productivity of cabbage in Meghalaya ii) To work out the cost and returns of cabbage growers iii) To study the constraints faced by the cabbage growers. The present study was conducted in five villages of Mawrykneng and Mawkynrew blocks in EKH district of Meghalaya. A sample of 80 respondents were selected randomly by using proportionate random sampling. To attain the first objective Compound Annual Growth Rate was applied. For second objective Costs and returns per ha were calculated using various costs and returns concepts and Garrett’s ranking technique was applied for the third objective. The growth rate in area, production and productivity during 2005-06 to 2017-18 were found to be 2.59 per cent, 3.01 per cent and 0.40 per cent respectively. The growth rate in area, production and productivity of cabbage in all the districts of Meghalaya was found to be positive. The total cost of cultivation in Zaid season was found to be `52129.00/ha. The total net income `32449.5 and B-C ratio was 1.60, operating ratio was 54 per cent. The total cost of cultivation in Rabi season was found to be `47834.42 and net farm income `40565.58. The B-C ratio was found to be 1.84 and operating ratio was found to be 47 per cent. The regression co-efficient was found to be significantly positive for seed cost (0.01) and Insecticides costs (0.02) at 5 percent. Fertilizer cost (0.25) was significant at 1 per cent. It was found that Cabbage production was profitable and economically viable. High Fluctuations in market prices was the major marketing constraints followed by lack of knowledge on latest agriculture practices and Pest infestation. Branches of regulated markets are needed to be established in Block markets to reduce the price fluctuations and government institutions like KVK, ATMA, ICAR, CAU should provide training programmes on latest agricultural practices and on IPM practices.ThesisItem Embargo Economic analysis of cattle husbandry in Lakhimpur district of Assam(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2022-09) Adhikari, Nilay; Singh, RamThe total livestock population in Assam has been estimated to be 18.09 million in which cattle has the highest percentage share with 60.30 per cent and Lakhimpur district of Assam is ranked first among all the districts in terms of cattle population with 6.29 lakh, which contributes 5.76 per cent to the total population of cattle in the state (Livestock Census, 2019). The present study was conducted in Lakhimpur district of Assam with following specific objectives- 1) To analyse the growth trends in cattle population and milk production of Assam, 2) To work out the costs and returns of cattle milk production at household level, 3) To estimate the marketed surplus of milk production of cattle at household level. Secondary data was collected from various publications of Government of Assam and other reliable sources. Primary data was gathered through interview from a sample of 93 cattle households. Tabular analysis, Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR), standard estimation procedure for cost and return of milk production and regression analysis were used to analyse the collected data. Total cattle population in Assam has been increased from 6.1 million in 1966 to 10.91 million in 2019 and registered an overall growth rate of 78.85 per cent. The volume of milk production in Assam has been increased from 699 million litres in 1995-96 to 1,004 million litres in 2020-21 and the CAGR of the volume of milk production in the state was found to be positive with 1.27 per cent. The benefit-cost ratio of milk enterprise was found to be higher (1:1.85) in case of crossbred cow as compared to local cow (1:1.15). The higher average milk yield per crossbred cow (8.17 L/day) accounted for higher net return as compared to that of local cow (2.08 L/day). The average marketed surplus of milk production at the household level was 89.71 per cent of the total milk production. The study revealed that total household milk production (p<0.01), family size (p<0.01) and average selling price of milk (p<0.05) had a significant influence on marketed surplus of cattle milk production at household level. This study suggests that the scientific methods of cattle farming should be extended to the cattle farmers by disseminating region specific breeding, feeding, health care and management practices in order to enhance economic viability of cattle farming enterprise.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of milk production in East Khasi Hills District of Meghalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2020-08) Ahmed, Jabir; Singh, RamDairy sector is important constituents of diversified farming system in Meghalaya and the demand for milk is increasing due to change in lifestyle and increase in income. The productivity of crossbred animals is 6.56 L/day which was introduced to meet up the demand for milk in the state. Therefore, the current study was conducted to estimate household milk production and its disposal pattern, and assess the yield gap in milk production and identify factors affecting it. Primary data was gathered through interview from a random sample of 82 households from four villages of East Khasi Hills district which was subjected to tabular, correlation, regression and yield gap analysis. The average milk production stood at 39.81 L/day/household; 96.66 per cent of which was marketed by the cattle rearers. The cattle rearers traded highest amount of milk (81.97%) through the cooperative societies. Marketed surplus demonstrated significant (p<0.01) positive association with total milk production across the herd size category of cattle rearers. Total yield gap was about 49.62 per cent which was comprised of yield gap-I (6.52%) and yield gap-II (43.10%). The highest percentage (56.00%) of total yield gap (TYG) existed in large cattle rearers but the least TYG (46.71%) detected in small cattle rearers. The variables namely, experience in dairy farming (β = -0.190**), distance from farmer’s farm to research station (β = 0.266***), contact with extension personnel (β = 0.211**), price of concentrate (β = -0.218**) and human days allocated for dairying (β = -0.572***) were noticed to be the significant factors influencing yield gap. Delay in payment (45.12%) by the dairy cooperative society stood as the foremost constraint experienced by the cattle rearers. This investigation proposes that the government shall take the initiative to demonstrate the benefits of advance technologies which is being adopted at research station to minimize the yield gap-I and motivate the cattle rearers to use the technologies or the practices which is being followed by progressive cattle rearers to minimize yield gap-II.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of milk production in West Khasi and South-West Hills districts of Meghalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2020-08) Das, Mridupaban; Singh, RamThe per capita milk availability in Meghalaya was 83 g/day in contrast to 375 g/day of India. There remains a wide milk yield gap in Meghalaya, especially in local cows. The TYG in milk production is reported to be about 3.78 L in NER (Paul and Chandel, 2010). The study was held in West Khasi Hills (WKH) and South-West Khasi Hills (SWKH) districts of Meghalaya with following objectives- (i) To estimate the milk production at household level and its disposal pattern and (ii) To assess the yield gap and factors affecting the milk yield gap. Multistage sampling technique was executed during the study where a total of 73 interviewee were interviewed. Tabular analysis was done to determine the mean milk yield and its disposal pattern to various milk marketing agencies. Regression analysis was performed using ANCOVA model to analyse the factors impacting the milk yield gap. The mean milk production/milch animal in study area was 0.89 L/day (0.82 L/day in WKH and 1.01 L/day in SWKH). The most important agency for milk disposal in the study area was middlemen/vendors who dispose milk of about 76.71 per cent of sampled households. TYG was 244.83 per cent overall, while it was 279.75 per cent in WKH and 203.03 per cent in SWKH. The study noted that experience in dairy farming (p<0.01), presence of scientific cattle shed (p<0.01), routine vaccination (p<0.01) of cattle, education of household head (p<0.05) and human labour allocated for dairy (hours) (p<0.10) had a significant influence on milk yield gap of local cow in WKH and SWKH districts of Meghalaya.ThesisItem Embargo Economic analysis of Muga culture in Lakhimpur district of Assam.(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2022-09) Reddy, A.Geethika; Singh, N. AnandkumarBeing the second largest producer of silk in the world, India holds a disparate position in the world silk map bringing forth all the four commercial varieties of silk viz., Mulberry, Eri, Tasar and Muga. Amid four varieties, Assam has a global monopoly in the fabrication of Muga silk, which is popularly acknowledged as the Golden silk of Assam. Muga culture is an ancient assamese culture and is strongly linked to its wealthy legacy. Despite the fact that Muga culture plays a dominant role in the cultural and livelihood practices of the state, scanty amount of information was available on the economic aspects of Muga culture. The output of the present study is expected to shed some light for proper policy implementation and to develop improved economic practices of Muga silk production. Keeping in the view of above facts, the study was under taken with an objectives: i) To Scrutinize the Trend in Production of Muga raw silk in the state. (ii) To Probe the Cost and Returns from Muga culture. (iii) To Point out the Constraints associated with Production and Marketing of Muga culture. The present study was conducted in two villages of Dakuakhana and Boginadi blocks in Lakhimpur district of Assam. A sample of 74 respondents were selected using Systematic sampling method. Pre structured standardized interview schedule was used for collecting of primary data. To achieve the above mentioned objectives, analytical tools like compound annual growth rate (CAGR), cost concepts, economic efficiency measures, garretts ranking technique were applied. The growth rate in area, production and productivity in Assam during 2009-10 to 2020-21 were found to be 1.18 per cent, 6.27 per cent and 5.03 per cent respectively. The total cost of Muga culture in Jethua season was `255148.49/ha, the total net farm income and B-C ratio was found to be `626026.20/ha and 3.45 respectively. Whereas, the total cost of Muga culture in Kotia season was `251217.38/ha, net farm income and B-C ratio was found to be `798326.60 and 4.18 respectively. It was found that Muga culture was highly profitable and economically viable in both the seasons. The major constraints faced by Muga rearers in the study area were incidence of pest and diseases, prevalence of natural enemies, inadequate knowledge on reeling machines and non advancement of credit to the sericulture sector. Therefore, government interventions are required to enhance the Muga silk industry of the state and investments should be made in some innovative technologies.ThesisItem Open Access Economic analysis of pineapple in Manipur(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2016-05) Singh, Ningombam Anandkumar; Singh, RamAmong the tropical fruit, pineapple (Ananas comos) is the second most important fruit in the world. India ranked seventh among the pineapple producing country in the world during 2013-14 (GoI, 2014). It is a well grown tropical fruit in NEHR with an area of more than 70 per cent of the total area of fruits in NEHR. Cultivation of pineapple helps in generating income and employment to the growers. In Manipur, 25 per cent of the total area of fruits is under pineapple and it was found to increase year by year, but productivity is still low as compared to other North Eastern states of India, this is mainly due to the practice of traditional way of cultivation and unscientific management of the orchard. Marketing is completely unorganized and controlled by the middlemen. Therefore, maximum profit goes to intermediaries and farmers get lower producer share in consumers’ rupees in the state. Keeping these in view, the present study was conducted to analyse the trend in area, production and productivity of pineapple, to work out the costs and returns from pineapple in Manipur, to estimate the economic viability of pineapple orchard in Manipur and to study the marketing efficiency and price behavior of pineapple were undertaken for the study. The study was conducted in four districts i.e., Thoubal, Bishnupur, Senapati and Churchandpur district of Manipur which are having the highest area and production of pineapple. One block from each district has been selected from purposively on the basis of maximum area and production of pineapple. A total of eleven villages in four blocks have been selected for identifying the pineapple growers. A total of 30 pineapple growers from each district have been selected as randomly. Thus, total 120 sample farmer’s representative drawn for the study. Four markets and three functionaries at each stage were selected. To attain the first objective compound annual growth rate (CAGR) was calculated; the costs and returns per hectare was calculated using Cost concept given by Special Expert Committee on Cost of Production Estimates (1979); economic indicators viz, NPV, BCR, BEP, PBP, IRR, the producers’ surplus, disposal pattern of pineapple, marketing efficiency, marketing margins, marketing cost and price spread of different channels in four major markets and seasonal indices of price and arrivals of pineapple were calculated. The total area, production and productivity of pineapple in Manipur found to be increased by 25.00 per cent, 67.91 per cent and 34.40 per cent, respectively during 2001-02 to 2011-12. The growth rates in area, production and productivity of pineapple in Manipur was 1.99 per cent, 3.81 per cent and 1.79 per cent per annum, respectively. The pineapple area, production and productivity were increased in both regions i.e., 40.00 per cent, 78.67 per cent and 27.41 per cent in valley region and in hill region, 14.80 per cent, 60.31 per cent and 69.64 per cent per annum. The growth rate of area, production and productivity were 3.29 per cent, 4.68 per cent and 1.35 per cent in valley region and in hill region, were 1.05 per cent, 3.18 per cent and 2.10 per cent per annum. The establishment cost was increased with the increase of the size of the orchard. The operational cost was increased with the increasing age of plants in all categories. Bearing of fruits starts two years after plantation. In both season, per hectare cost of pineapple cultivation were increased with the increase the size of the orchard but less cost incurred during winter as compared to the per ha cost incurred during summer season i.e., for small (Rs.99775.73/ha), medium (Rs.120316.77/ha), large (Rs.150843.72/ha) and overall category (Rs.114588.63) in summer and in winter season, for small (Rs.41578.27/ha), medium (Rs.47888.30/ha), large (Rs.55338.83/ha) and overall category (Rs.46687.89/ha), respectively. The net returns were also increased with the increase the size of the orchard in both the seasons i.e., for small (Rs.20335.72/ha), medium (Rs.47672.84/ha), large (Rs.69049.68/ha) and overall category (Rs.31661.69/ha) in summer and in winter season, for small (Rs.12477.46/ha), medium (Rs.14106.50/ha) and large (Rs.19807.87/ha) and overall category (Rs.12383.94/ha) respectively. The investment in pineapple orchards has been found a profitable in both seasons. The economic viability of pineapple fruit during summer season, mainly NPV, BCR, IRR, BEP and PBP were Rs.14999.04, 1.16, 23.31 per cent, 21.64 q, 1.40 year in small, Rs.39127.09, 1.34, 46.34 per cent, 28.69 q, 1.10 year in medium, Rs.57076.84, 1.40, 49.94 per cent, 54.97 q, 1.05 year in large and Rs.24857.80, 1.23, 32.53 per cent, 26.29 q, 1.27 year from bearing in overall category and during winter season, Rs.10515.11, 1.27, 67.23 per cent, 12.81 q, 0.81 year in small, Rs.12060.07, 1.27, 79.65 per cent, 13.46 q, 0.81 year in medium, Rs.16964.22, 1.33, 87.02 per cent, 14.33 q, 0.71 year in large and Rs.10454.44, 1.24, 67.33 per cent, 13.32 q, 0.85 year from bearing in overall category, respectively. Four marketing channels viz, Channel I (producer → wholesaler → retailer → consumer), Channel II (producer → retailer → consumer), Channel III (producer → processor → consumer) and Channel IV (producer → consumer) were identified in four markets. The marketed surplus was increased with the increase of the size of the orchard i.e., 95.78 per cent in large, 95.22 per cent in medium and 94.55 per cent in small, and 96.12 per cent in overall orchard respectively during summer season. In all the categories, the maximum market surplus was disposed through the channel I i.e., 57.20 per cent in small, 56.60 per cent in medium, 58.23 per cent in large and 56.11 per cent in overall orchard, respectively and the remaining was disposed through the reaming channels. In winter season, marketed surplus was 99.49 per cent in small, 99.50 per cent in medium and 99.51 per cent in large and 99.64 per cent overall orchard, respectively. The maximum market surplus was disposed through the channel IV i.e., 37.20 per cent in small, 45.07 per cent in medium and 44.84 per cent in large and 44.26 per cent in overall orchard, respectively and the remaining was disposed through the reaming channels. The channel I was observed to be highest efficient in all market for disposal in both summer and winter season because there was no intermediaries involved in the marketing function of pineapple. In all the market the arrival of pineapple was started from the month of June and reach peak during August and closes by December and November in Imphal and Lamlong market. In all the market the arrival of pineapple was found to be negatively inelastic responds to the price of pineapple which means that more arrival of pineapple lead to decrease the price of the pineapple. The pineapple production in Manipur was commercialization in general, despite the fact that this was a profitable venture and their economic study was not done so far. There was vast scope for increasing of pineapple area and production in the Manipur was possible only through improvement in area and productivity. Productivity can be increase by develop scientific package of practices in local language, proper initiative on the part of Government in respect of credit availability, marketing infrastructure, communication system along with sustained awareness campaign may improve the social and economic condition of the farmers. Agriculture products being raw or perishable are produced at one place and marketed at another. Marketing of this product involves many agencies and also the cost and margins associated with them are varying. It provides, therefore a very wide field for economic investigation especially in a country like ours marketing system is not well developed and also not controlled by the gap between the price paid by consumer and price received by the producer.ThesisItem Embargo Economic analysis of production and marketing of tomato in West Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2022-08) Nidagundi, Raviprasad S.; Singh, Ningombam AnandkumarVegetables play a key role in human nutrition and the tomato is an important vegetable crop ranked third in priority after potato and onion in India. The tomato contributed 15.99 per cent of the world’s vegetable production, whereas in India it contributed 14.39 per cent of total vegetable production in 2019. In Northeastern states, tomato was grown over an area of 31.37 thousand hectares with an annual production of 595.49 thousand tonnes in 2019. When it comes to Meghalaya tomato was grown over an area of 2.19 thousand hectares with an annual production of 35.12 thousand tonnes in 2021. The majority of the tomato growers had the medium economic motivation and had low training. Due to this reason, there is a need to study the profitability of tomato farmers of the state. Keeping the above fact in view, the present research was proposed with the following specific objectives: (1) To study growth trends in area and production of tomato in state, (2) To examine the cost and returns from tomato cultivation and (3) To study the marketing system of tomato in West Jaintia hills district of Meghalaya. Multistage sampling was applied for the study and a total 84 number of respondents were selected as the sample size for collecting primary data. The tools and techniques such as CAGR, cost concepts and profitability measures, producer surplus, marketing cost and margin, price spread, marketing efficiency and Garrett Ranking etc. were applied to achieve the above defined objectives. The study revealed that the CAGR percentage calculated for area, production and productivity was found to be 0.93 per cent, 1.32 per cent and 0.38 per cent, respectively. The comprehensive cost of tomato cultivation was found to be ` 235025.73 out of which more than 70 per cent was contributed by hired human labour and family labour. In the study area, three marketing channels were identified, where channel I with no market intermediaries was found to be more efficient than channels II & III. In overall, tomato cultivation in the study area was found to be profitable and economically feasible. The major problem faced by the tomato farmers was the lack of storage infrastructure. Hence, the establishment of FPO can provide the input assistance and value addition of tomato that can help to reduce cost and increase returns respectively.ThesisItem Embargo Economics of soil conservation in Meghalaya(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2022-08) Tyngkan, Hehlangki; Singh, S. BasantaSoil degradation is described as the rate at which soil quality degrades, leading to a reduction in agricultural yields, as a result of activities primarily driven by human activity. Meghalaya has the wettest environment on the planet, and its high terrain with tiny valleys in between limits the amount of land available for cultivation. Due to unprecedented rainfall and its high intensity, the problem of soil erosion persists in the state. Consequently, soil erosion in the state accelerated by primitive agricultural practices such as jhum and bun. Keeping the above facts in view, the study on the economics of soil conservation in Meghalaya was planned with the objectives: (i) to study the economics of different soil conservation methods vis-à-vis conventional farming (ii) to study the adoption of soil conservation practices by the farmers in the study area (iii) to assess the impact of soil conservation practices on income, employment and equity of farmers in the study area (iv) to derives policy implications for improvement of soil conservation measures in the state. For the study, primary data consisting of 120 adopters and 120 non-adopters of soil conservation were collected from East Khasi Hills and Ri-Bhoi districts. Benefit-cost analysis, binary logistic regression model, paired t-test, Gini index, Lorenz curve; policy documentation and consultation with different agencies were employed to achieve the above defined objectives. The study revealed that, all the adopted soil conservation (SC) measures viz., bench terracing, contour bunding, peripheral bunding, loose boulder bunding and check dam had positive Net Present Value (NPV), B-C ratio more than one and Internal Rate of return (IRR) more than the considering discount factor (10%). Among the various SC, bench terracing had the highest NPV `264515.58) and IRR (24.36%) whereas loose boulder bunding had the highest B-C ratio (1.53). The economics of selected crops between the adopters and non-adopters of SC showed a significant difference over non-adopters in potato, cabbage and carrot with a difference in net return of `19325.44, `11310.22 and `15482.07, respectively. Out of 13 regressors taken into consideration for determining the factors affecting the adoption of SC by the farmers, age, sex, education, farm income, off-farm income, livestock, access to credit and training were significant. In both the adopters and non-adopters’ categories, majority of the farmers belonged in the income group of `30001-`60000 (39.17% and 48.33 % respectively) followed by `60001-`90000 (35.83% and 30.83% respectively). However, adopters had higher income with the difference of `16,723.65 as compared to the non-adopters. The Lorenz curve and Gini index (0.28 for adopters and 0.38 for non-adopters) depicted a comparatively even distribution of income among the adopters. Per farm employment showed a significant difference at 285.95 mandays and 243.18 mandays in adopters and non-adopters, respectively. The priority areas for action identified to improve the adoption of SC measures in the state include building partnerships, up-scaling of SC practices, building community capability, maximum participation in MGNREGA scheme, economic incentives, promotion of conservation agriculture (CA) and promotion of payment for ecosystem services (PES). The overall results on feasibility analysis for various SC measures were encouraging and hence regular awareness programs are necessary to motivate farmers for adopting appropriate erosion control measures in their field to bring positive returns while enhancing the productivity of the soil in long termThesisItem Open Access Economics of solar powered pumping system in major crops of Rajasthan: a comparative study(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2019-02) Meena, Narendr Kumar; Singh, RamUnder different types of irrigation systems viz., diesel, electric and solar irrigation system kinnow cultivation has been practiced as a major fruit crop by the farmers. Many of the inputs are being used in kinnow production but irrigation plays an important role. Energy requirement for pumping the water is through diesel and electric irrigation system but continuous, sustainable, portable and uninterrupted source of irrigation remains a greater challenge to the farmer due to sky touching fuel prices on one hand and in the clean environment saga of the other. The solar powered irrigation is economically viable and promising option to irrigate the crops. Hence, this investigation was undertaken to work out the cost and returns, resource use efficiency, economic feasibility of kinnow cultivation under diesel, electric and solar irrigation systems and examined the constraints in adoption of solar powered irrigation. A total of eight villages was selected, four each from the Sri-Ganganagar and Bikaner districts of the state Rajasthan as highest number of solar units are installed to irrigate the kinnow orchard. A total of 240 kinnow growers were selected and categorized into three groups viz., solar irrigation system (160 farmers), diesel irrigation system (40 farmers) and electric irrigation system (40 farmers). Primary data was collected for the crop year 2016-17 on well structured and pre- tested through individual interview schedule method. Cost concepts, Cobb-Douglas production function, Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis, NPV, PB, BCR and BEP and Garret’s ranking technique were applied to analyze the household data. It is summarized that the establishment cost of kinnow orchard has been worked out of 362646, 462497, 444323 and 830303 under diesel, electric and solar irrigation systems (with and without subsidy), respectively. The operational cost was found to be increased with the age of the plants. The gross cost has been observed lowest under solar irrigation system (with subsidy) compare to other irrigation systems. The net returns of kinnow cultivation with solar irrigation system (with subsidy) was proved to be more profitable compare to other irrigation systems due to no energy cost of fuel and electricity. The allocative efficiency of kinnow cultivation was revealed that family labour, hired labour and fertilizer were found to be more than one signifying that there was further possibility to increase the use of inputs under solar and diesel irrigation systems. Similarly, family labour, hired labour, machine labour and irrigation were also observed to be underutilized signifying that there is additional possibility to increase the use of inputs in order to give more returns under diesel irrigation system. The LCC of solar system was found to be more economical choice over the diesel and electric irrigation systems. All the economic efficiency indicators of the solar irrigation system have shown higher comparative to two other irrigation systems. The major constraints faced by respondents in adoption of solar system were in-adequate subsidy, high initial investment, non-availability of quality spare parts etc.ThesisItem Open Access Economics of tea cultivation in Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Central Agricultural University , Imphal, 2019-03) Wangnow, Nowang; Sethi, BinodiniArunachal Pradesh is the leading non-traditional tea growing state of the north eastern region. At present, there are 62 registered big tea gardens (above 10.12 ha), 50 registered small tea growers and around 4,500 unregistered small tea growers in the state. The Government of Arunachal Pradesh has been encouraging tea cultivation among the farmers under the Chief Minister's Mission Mode Project (MMP) and tea industry in the state is ready for a revolution with more farmers taking up tea cultivation. Therefore, the present research was required to study the trend of tea production, to work out the cost and returns, and to identify the constraints faced by farmers in the cultivation of tea. To achieve the objectives of the study, both primary and secondary data were used. Primary data were obtained from sample households through personal interview with the help of pre-tested structured schedule. Secondary data were collected from various publications and journals. Multistage random sampling technique was applied for the present study. Arunachal Pradesh was selected purposively for the study. Tirap district was selected purposively. Deomali and Khonsa block were selected purposively on the basis of having the highest area under tea in the district. Two villages from each block were selected randomly, viz., Borduria, Kaimai, Namsang and Doidam. Thus, a total of 80 respondents were selected from these villages adopting simple random sampling without replacement method. To study the trend of tea production, Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) was computed; for economics of production, Cost concepts, Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Pay Back Period (PBP) were used and for identifying the constraints in tea cultivation, Garrett’s ranking technique was used. The Compound growth rate computed reveals that the area, production and productivity of tea in Arunachal Pradesh have increased by 9.61 per cent, 21.20 per cent and 10.56 per cent respectively; during the period 2000-01 to 2014-15.The establishment cost of tea garden was calculated to be `35980 per ha and the highest cost incurred was on planting materials (35.83%). The operational costs consist of intercultural operation, weeding, pruning, drain management, fence maintenance, tipping, plucking etc., and was observed to be increasing from the first year up to the peak harvesting years. Economic analysis of data shows that the total variable cost was higher than the total fixed cost and per hectare cost of cultivation of tea was costlier in the first year as compared to the later years. This was due to adding-up of the establishment cost. The tea garden started giving returns from the third year onwards and the returns per hectare increased as the tea plants matured. The Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Pay Back Period (PBP) were found to be `82768, 1.52 and 6.2 respectively. Problems of diseases and pest attacks were rated as the major constraint by the farmers, followed by non-availability of finance and lack of proper marketing. Tea plantation as an enterprise is a source of income and employment for the population in the study area and the government must encourage people to take up the activity on a large scale for commercial purpose.ThesisItem Open Access An empirical study on economics of rice production in Tripura(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2016-08) Debnath, Pallab; Singh, RamRice is a staple crop in North-Eastern Hill NEHR) of India including Tripura. At present, the state is facing deficit of 0.19 lakh ton of rice. It is essential to increase the production of rice being the staple diet. In the above light, the present study has been undertaken with the following objectives (i) To work out the costs and returns from paddy cultivation (ii) To estimate the allocative and technical efficiencies in rice production and (iii) To analyse the yield gap in rice production The study was conducted in Dhalai, North Tripura, Sipahijala and South Tripura districts of Tripura state.A sample of 120 rice growers was selected by using Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling technique. The farmers were categorized into marginal (< 1 ha) and small category (1 ha or more). The study revealed that the size of land holding of a farmer of Tripura was very less comparative to other state as well as national level. The cultivation of rice was profitable in the state. It was found that the rice growers were not efficient in allocating the available resources judiciously. Some of the production inputs, viz., human labour and fertilizer should be increased while machine labour, seed, irrigation, manure and agrochemical should be decreased in Tripura in-order to make the resources allocatively efficient. The technical efficiency was 79.90 per cent in the state. In Tripura there exists yield gap of 19.80 per cent between actual yield and the potential yield which can be narrowed by increasing human labour, farming experience, education level, fertilizer availability in required quantity, supplementary irrigation facility, labour availability and managing pest and disease. Thus, there is tremendous scope to increase the production of rice for which it is recommended that the government agencies should educate the farmers regarding the economic benefits, judicious use of available resources and ensure the supply of necessary inputs in required quantity in the state.ThesisItem Open Access An evaluation of the public distribution system in Kamrup (Rural) district of Assam.(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2020-08) Ahmed, Rizwan; Singh, S. BasantaFood is one of the basic necessity for human survival. The public distribution system (PDS) in India acts as a safety net for the poor by providing essential items, i.e. rice, wheat, sugar, kerosene etc. at subsidised cost and contributes towards the social welfare of the people. India’s public distribution system with a network of 4.78 lakh fair price shops (FPS) is the largest retail system in the world (Gupta and Saxena, 2014). Therefore, the current study focuses on the following three objectives viz., 1) To understand and assess the status of functioning of PDS in Kamrup (R) district of Assam, 2) To estimate the impact of PDS in calorie intake of BPL households and 3) To estimate the various parameters for effective participation in PDS and identify the problems faced by households due to PDS. Primary data was gathered through interview applying multi stage sampling method from a random sample of 132 households from four villages of Kamrup (Rural) district of Assam which was subjected to tabular, logit and Garrett ranking analysis. The findings suggest that PDS is functioning efficiently in the district although it has some shortcomings which are very much valid. PDS has had a marginal positive effect on calorie intake (▲C= 104.1cal/day) on BPL households. The subsidized food items have helped in attainment of calorie security but lacks in terms of providing balanced diet and nutritional security. The variables namely, distribution of variety of goods (β = 2.131***), lack of awareness (β = -2.387***) and location of PDS in easily accessible areas (β = 2.892***) were found to be significant factors influencing the participation in PDS. Adulteration and leakage of goods in open market were considered to be major constraints faced by the beneficiaries. This investigation proposes the need to introduce innovative ideas such as smart cards, food credit/debit cards and use of both print and digital media to spread awareness about PDS and check the bottlenecks in the PDS to make the system more efficient.ThesisItem Open Access Food and nutritional security at farm household level in Meghalaya: impact of government schemes(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2020-11) Nongbri, Baiarbor; Singh, RamMeghalaya produced 41.82 thousand MT, 12.68 thousand MT, 21.12 thousand MT of food grains, pulses and oilseeds, respectively during the year 2016-17. However, the state faced a deficit in terms of food grains and pulses by 49.21 per cent and 86.61 per cent, respectively. At first instance, food security emphasis food availability for a household. But as a matter of fact, the households must be able to consume the right quantity of balanced foods, equivalent to approximately 2400 Kcal per capita per day; however, it was disturbing to learn that the calorie intake in Meghalaya was the least in the country with only 1703 Kcal. In order to augment to availability of food to the households, accessibility of foods has to be the corner stone. Thus, by indulgent the food availability and food consumption with its stability across farming households, the underlying determinants of malnutrition, food insecurity and the drudgery across households can be thoroughly recognized. On this aspect, the study was conducted with the following objectives 1. To calculate the household food availability from different sources 2. To understand the food consumption, requirement and gap among the farm households and 3. To access the impact of different schemes and programmes on the farm households towards food security. The study was conducted in East Khasi Hills, West Jaintia Hills and West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya. A total of 12 villages were surveyed and 240 farming households were personally interviewed. In order to understand the food availability across different households, a food basket was prepared and 12 mostly consumed foods were selected based on the food groups as recommended by ICMR. Among the schemes, the Public Distribution system (PDS) which was under the umbrella of National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013 and the Mahatma Gandhi National Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 were selected purposively. The gap in availability and nutritional intake was estimated based on the average recommended intake by ICMR. Furthermore, paired t-test was applied to understand the impact of PDS on the beneficiary household. With a view to understand the impact of MGNREGA on the households, Gini coefficient, Lorenz curve and difference in difference (DID) method has been used. It has been observed that households across districts follows a monotonous diet concentrating more on cereals and less emphasis on other food items like pulses, vegetables, fruits, meat and milk. Rice was still a major food crops consumed across households with a nutritional intake of approximately 1726.50 Kcal per person per day which was more than 70 per cent than the recommended intake by ICMR. Whereas, an overall contribution from the food basket was estimated to be 2086.41, there was an overall gap of 313.59 Kcal per person per day in the state. PDS has significantly increased the rice availability across households with an increased total availability by 25.86 per cent. It was also estimated that there was an increment in the total income and expenditure post MGNREGA by 17.73 per cent with an increase in the overall food expenditure by 16.69 per cent per year. The Gini-coefficient post MGNREGA was also estimated to be of 0.21 and 0.61, respectively, indicated an improvement in the distribution of income post MNGREGA period and the Lorenz curve post scheme was also closer to the equality line indicating the improved income distribution among the beneficiaries. Using DID method, it was found that there was an increased impact due to MGNREGA where the income has increased by `18080 and there was enhancement in food expenditure by `9245.84 signifying a boon to the overall development of the beneficiary households The study recommends that proper food production has to be concentrated and encouraged in terms of crop diversification. Production and consumption of pulses and other food crops should be properly prompt. In terms of schemes, the NFSA and MGNREGA is the most applauded scheme in India and has withstood the poor households in the state thus; more monitoring should be done for better distribution to the rightful beneficiaries by the concerned departments. Whereas, there is a robust need on the nutritional education in the state and when agriculture are being taught, the issues of nutrition and its importance can be edified. The study also recommended consumption of traditional foods like as these indigenous foods are easily available, rich in micro-nutrients and are climate resilient.ThesisItem Embargo Impact of bio-pesticides use in major vegetables of Meghalaya :an economic analysis(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2022-08) P., Harigovind; Singh, RamOver the previous decades, intensive and extensive cultivation of high yielding varieties of crops were introduced in India which skyrocketed the production to many folds, and crop protection also played a significant role in the success of Green Revolution and increased productivity. The realization of the negative effects of chemicals shifted the focus to more reliable, sustainable and environment friendly organic farming practices. Increasing the adoption rate of organic cultivation in India is a major driving factor for bio-pesticides in the country. Since the state of Meghalaya and North-Eastern Hill region as a whole organic by default and also there is increased concerns now a days for organic food production in a health point of view as well as to increase the productivity sustainably, bio-pesticides can be a viable option for farmer to choose. Knowing the importance of bio-pesticide use in vegetables production among the farmers in the Khasi Hills region, the present research was conducted in two districts of Meghalaya with the following specific objectives- i) To work out cost of cultivation of major vegetables for adopters and non-adopters. ii) To study farmer’s constraints on use of bio-pesticides in major vegetables and to suggest policy measures for enhancing the adoption. Ri-bhoi and East khasi hills districts were selected purposively and three vegetable crops viz., Cabbage, potato, and French bean were identified as major vegetables as farmers are mainly applying biopesticides in these crops at different growth stages. A total of 4 blocks from which 4 villages were selected purposively based on the number of adopter farmers and 150 respondents in total were selected using random sampling with proportionate allocation to population size, out of which 100 were adopters. The results of study revealed that the bio-pesticide adoption assessed in terms of productivity, cost and returns revealed a proper positive economic impact among the vegetable growers who opted bio-pesticide in their farms. The cost of cultivation was found to be lower for adopters in the case of all three vegetables than non-adopters and the corresponding decrease was 15.71 per cent, 10.77 per cent and 12, 31 per cent for cabbage, potato and French beans respectively. The yield was found to be higher for adopters and hence, they derived an increased returns of 78.04 per cent from cabbage, 124.49 per cent from potato and 50.35 per cent from French bean than non-adopters. In-addition to farmer’s socio-economic characteristics and institutional factors, farmer’s perceptions about the intervention also are very important in determining the adoption decision. Better education, frequent contact with experts and timely availability of agri-inputs in accessible areas and spreading awareness regarding benefits of bio-pesticides will be having an affirmative impact on increased adoption of bio-pesticides among the farmers.ThesisItem Open Access Livelihood security through organic farming in North East Hill Region of India: an economic analysis(College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU-Imphal, Umiam, 2020-08) Chiphang, Singyala; Singh, RamOrganic farming has a significant advantage which encompasses environmental protection, increasing farmers' income, reducing external input cost, enhancing social capacity, increasing employment opportunities and enhancing food security by increasing the purchasing power of the people and improve farmers’ livelihood. But despite of being organic by default, no systematic attempt has been made to evaluate the benefits and positive effects of the system in North East Hill region of India and studies comparing the two farming systems, organic and inorganic are lacking. So, the study has been carried out with the objective to analyse the economics of organic farming in selected crops, assess the livelihood security of organic and inorganic farm households and identify the factors affecting livelihood security of the same. A sample of 150 respondents were selected from Sikkim and another 150 respondents were selected from Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura considering the highest area under cereal, pulses, spices, vegetables and oilseed crops through multistage random sampling. Defined standard techniques for calculating cost and returns were employed to work out the economics of different selected crops, CARE index was adopted to assessed the livelihood security and Ordered logistic regression model was employed to identify the factors affecting the livelihood security. The study revealed that the average age of the farmer respondents were 48.50 years and a sample household composed of 5 members approximately. The average literacy rate was 79.26 per cent. The overall operational land holding was 0.62 ha. The study further revealed that organic farming is economically profitable over non-adopter farm across the crops except rice due to cost saving and higher gross income. Education security, economic security, and social security were found to be high for the organic adopters with the score of 0.40, 0.38 and 0.44. About 36 per cent, 39.33 per cent and 24.67 per cent of the organic adopters were in low, moderate and high level of livelihood security. Landholding positively influenced the livelihood security of the organic adopters while access to market and households who do not possessed livestock negatively influenced the same. Similarly, total farm income and landholding positively influenced the livelihood security of the non- adopters whereas household size and access to market had negative influenced on livelihood security. The study concluded that organic farming is economically beneficial and can enhanced the livelihood security. Hence it is recommended that organic farming must be popularised through the extension agents of the respective states among the farmers and other stakeholders in agriculture.